Daily Papers

Scientific progress depends on sequences of enabling contributions, yet existing AI4Science benchmarks largely focus on citation prediction, literature retrieval, or idea generation rather than the dependencies that make progress possible. In this paper, we introduce discovery pathway forecasting: given a target scientific contribution and the prior literature available at a specified time, the task is to (1) identify the enabling contributions required to realize it and (2) ground each in prior work when such prior work exists. We present SciPaths, a benchmark of 262 expert-annotated gold pathways and 2,444 silver pathways constructed from machine learning and natural language processing papers, where each pathway records enabling contributions, roles, rationales, and prior-work groundings or unmapped decisions. Evaluating frontier and open-weight language models, we find that the best model reaches only 0.189 F1 under strict semantic matching, with core methodological dependencies hardest to recover. Prior-work grounding improves substantially when gold enabling contributions are provided, showing that decomposition quality is a major bottleneck for end-to-end pathway recovery. SciPaths therefore shifts evaluation toward a missing capability in scientific forecasting: reasoning backward from a target contribution to the enabling scientific building blocks and prior-work dependencies that make it feasible.

Human annotation is the empirical foundation of much NLP research, from dataset construction to model evaluation, but papers often leave unclear who produced the annotations and how the annotation process was controlled. We provide the first large-scale, task-level audit of human annotation reporting across major NLP venues, asking which annotation details are documented, which are missing, and how reporting varies across time, topic, venue, and intended use of human judgment. We introduce a unified taxonomy of annotation-reporting practices and validate an LLM-assisted extraction pipeline against Annotated-gold, a human-adjudicated gold standard of 41 papers and 72 annotation tasks, where the best model reaches human-comparable agreement with adjudicated labels, with Krippendorff's alpha of 0.606 versus 0.585 for human-human agreement. Using this pipeline, we construct Annotated-llm, a dataset covering ACL-venue papers from 2018-2025, with 2,667 extracted annotation tasks from 1,603 papers, and find that papers frequently report operational details such as recruitment strategies, annotator expertise, and annotation volume, but often omit details needed to assess annotation validity, including training, language proficiency, compensation, socio-demographics, adjudication, and agreement values, especially in model-evaluation studies. Our results show that annotation reporting in NLP has improved over time but remains uneven, and they establish a scalable framework and bare-minimum reporting recommendations for making human annotation more reliable, reproducible, and interpretable.

Biologically-informed neural networks typically leverage pathway annotations to enhance performance in biomedical applications. We hypothesized that the benefits of pathway integration does not arise from its biological relevance, but rather from the sparsity it introduces. We conducted a comprehensive analysis of all relevant pathway-based neural network models for predictive tasks, critically evaluating each study's contributions. From this review, we curated a subset of methods for which the source code was publicly available. The comparison of the biologically informed state-of-the-art deep learning models and their randomized counterparts showed that models based on randomized information performed equally well as biologically informed ones across different metrics and datasets. Notably, in 3 out of the 15 analyzed models, the randomized versions even outperformed their biologically informed counterparts. Moreover, pathway-informed models did not show any clear advantage in interpretability, as randomized models were still able to identify relevant disease biomarkers despite lacking explicit pathway information. Our findings suggest that pathway annotations may be too noisy or inadequately explored by current methods. Therefore, we propose a methodology that can be applied to different domains and can serve as a robust benchmark for systematically comparing novel pathway-informed models against their randomized counterparts. This approach enables researchers to rigorously determine whether observed performance improvements can be attributed to biological insights.

In large organisations, identifying experts on a given topic is crucial in leveraging the internal knowledge spread across teams and departments. So-called enterprise expert retrieval systems automatically discover and structure employees' expertise based on the vast amount of heterogeneous data available about them and the work they perform. Evaluating these systems requires comprehensive ground truth expert annotations, which are hard to obtain. Therefore, the annotation process typically relies on automated recommendations of knowledge areas to validate. This case study provides an analysis of how these recommendations can impact the evaluation of expert finding systems. We demonstrate on a popular benchmark that system-validated annotations lead to overestimated performance of traditional term-based retrieval models and even invalidate comparisons with more recent neural methods. We also augment knowledge areas with synonyms to uncover a strong bias towards literal mentions of their constituent words. Finally, we propose constraints to the annotation process to prevent these biased evaluations, and show that this still allows annotation suggestions of high utility. These findings should inform benchmark creation or selection for expert finding, to guarantee meaningful comparison of methods.

Drug discovery is a complex and time-intensive process that requires identifying and validating new therapeutic candidates. Computational approaches using large-scale biomedical knowledge graphs (KGs) offer a promising solution to accelerate this process. However, extracting meaningful insights from large-scale KGs remains challenging due to the complexity of graph traversal. Existing subgraph-based methods are tailored to graph neural networks (GNNs), making them incompatible with other models, such as large language models (LLMs). We introduce K-Paths, a retrieval framework that extracts structured, diverse, and biologically meaningful paths from KGs. Integrating these paths enables LLMs and GNNs to effectively predict unobserved drug-drug and drug-disease interactions. Unlike traditional path-ranking approaches, K-Paths retrieves and transforms paths into a structured format that LLMs can directly process, facilitating explainable reasoning. K-Paths employs a diversity-aware adaptation of Yen's algorithm to retrieve the K shortest loopless paths between entities in an interaction query, prioritizing biologically relevant and diverse relationships. Our experiments on benchmark datasets show that K-Paths improves the zero-shot performance of Llama 8.1B's F1-score by 12.45 points on drug repurposing and 13.42 points on interaction severity prediction. We also show that Llama 70B achieves F1-score gains of 6.18 and 8.46 points, respectively. K-Paths also improves the supervised training efficiency of EmerGNN, a state-of-the-art GNN, by reducing KG size by 90% while maintaining strong predictive performance. Beyond its scalability and efficiency, K-Paths uniquely bridges the gap between KGs and LLMs, providing explainable rationales for predicted interactions. These capabilities show that K-Paths is a valuable tool for efficient data-driven drug discovery.

Token-choice Mixture-of-Experts (TC-MoE) routes each token to a fixed number of experts, limiting dynamic computation allocation and requiring auxiliary losses to maintain load balance. We propose Expert Threshold (ET) routing, where each expert maintains an exponential moving average (EMA) threshold estimated from the global token distribution. At both training and inference, each token is independently routed to an expert if its score exceeds the expert's threshold, enabling dynamic computation allocation while achieving load balance without auxiliary losses. This fully causal mechanism eliminates dependence on other tokens in the batch, making it well-suited for autoregressive language modeling. In pretraining experiments scaling to 2.4B parameters on FineWeb-Edu, ET achieves 0.067 lower cross-entropy loss than TC-MoE, equivalent to reaching the same performance with 1.6times fewer tokens.

Mixture-of-experts (MoE) architectures used in large language models (LLMs) achieve state-of-the-art performance across diverse tasks yet face practical challenges such as deployment complexity and low activation efficiency. Expert pruning has thus emerged as a promising solution to reduce computational overhead and simplify the deployment of MoE models. However, existing expert pruning approaches conventionally rely on local importance metrics and often apply uniform layer-wise pruning, leveraging only partial evaluation signals and overlooking the heterogeneous contributions of experts across layers. To address these limitations, we propose an expert pruning approach based on the trajectory of activated experts across layers, which treats MoE as a weighted computation graph and casts expert selection as a global optimal path planning problem. Within this framework, we integrate complementary importance signals from reconstruction error, routing probabilities, and activation strength at the trajectory level, which naturally yields non-uniform expert retention across layers. Experiments show that our approach achieves superior pruning performance on nearly all tasks compared with most existing approaches.

Mixture of experts (MoE) has become the standard for constructing production-level large language models (LLMs) due to its promise to boost model capacity without causing significant overheads. Nevertheless, existing MoE methods usually enforce a constant top-k routing for all tokens, which is arguably restrictive because various tokens (e.g., "<EOS>" vs. "apple") may require various numbers of experts for feature abstraction. Lifting such a constraint can help make the most of limited resources and unleash the potential of the model for downstream tasks. In this sense, we introduce AdaMoE to realize token-adaptive routing for MoE, where different tokens are permitted to select a various number of experts. AdaMoE makes minimal modifications to the vanilla MoE with top-k routing -- it simply introduces a fixed number of null experts, which do not consume any FLOPs, to the expert set and increases the value of k. AdaMoE does not force each token to occupy a fixed number of null experts but ensures the average usage of the null experts with a load-balancing loss, leading to an adaptive number of null/true experts used by each token. AdaMoE exhibits a strong resemblance to MoEs with expert choice routing while allowing for trivial auto-regressive modeling. AdaMoE is easy to implement and can be effectively applied to pre-trained (MoE-)LLMs. Extensive studies show that AdaMoE can reduce average expert load (FLOPs) while achieving superior performance. For example, on the ARC-C dataset, applying our method to fine-tuning Mixtral-8x7B can reduce FLOPs by 14.5% while increasing accuracy by 1.69%.

Keeping track of scientific challenges, advances and emerging directions is a fundamental part of research. However, researchers face a flood of papers that hinders discovery of important knowledge. In biomedicine, this directly impacts human lives. To address this problem, we present a novel task of extraction and search of scientific challenges and directions, to facilitate rapid knowledge discovery. We construct and release an expert-annotated corpus of texts sampled from full-length papers, labeled with novel semantic categories that generalize across many types of challenges and directions. We focus on a large corpus of interdisciplinary work relating to the COVID-19 pandemic, ranging from biomedicine to areas such as AI and economics. We apply a model trained on our data to identify challenges and directions across the corpus and build a dedicated search engine. In experiments with 19 researchers and clinicians using our system, we outperform a popular scientific search engine in assisting knowledge discovery. Finally, we show that models trained on our resource generalize to the wider biomedical domain and to AI papers, highlighting its broad utility. We make our data, model and search engine publicly available. https://challenges.apps.allenai.org/

Genetic pathways usually encode molecular mechanisms that can inform targeted interventions. It is often challenging for existing machine learning approaches to jointly model genetic pathways (higher-order features) and variants (atomic features), and present to clinicians interpretable models. In order to build more accurate and better interpretable machine learning models for genetic medicine, we introduce Pathway Augmented Nonnegative Tensor factorization for HighER-order feature learning (PANTHER). PANTHER selects informative genetic pathways that directly encode molecular mechanisms. We apply genetically motivated constrained tensor factorization to group pathways in a way that reflects molecular mechanism interactions. We then train a softmax classifier for disease types using the identified pathway groups. We evaluated PANTHER against multiple state-of-the-art constrained tensor/matrix factorization models, as well as group guided and Bayesian hierarchical models. PANTHER outperforms all state-of-the-art comparison models significantly (p<0.05). Our experiments on large scale Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) and whole-genome genotyping datasets also demonstrated wide applicability of PANTHER. We performed feature analysis in predicting disease types, which suggested insights and benefits of the identified pathway groups.

Knowledge Graph (KG) reasoning, which aims to infer new facts from structured knowledge repositories, plays a vital role in Natural Language Processing (NLP) systems. Its effectiveness critically depends on constructing informative and contextually relevant reasoning paths. However, existing graph neural networks (GNNs) often adopt rigid, query-agnostic path-exploration strategies, limiting their ability to adapt to diverse linguistic contexts and semantic nuances. To address these limitations, we propose MoKGR, a mixture-of-experts framework that personalizes path exploration through two complementary components: (1) a mixture of length experts that adaptively selects and weights candidate path lengths according to query complexity, providing query-specific reasoning depth; and (2) a mixture of pruning experts that evaluates candidate paths from a complementary perspective, retaining the most informative paths for each query. Through comprehensive experiments on diverse benchmark, MoKGR demonstrates superior performance in both transductive and inductive settings, validating the effectiveness of personalized path exploration in KGs reasoning.

Sparsely-activated Mixture-of-experts (MoE) models allow the number of parameters to greatly increase while keeping the amount of computation for a given token or a given sample unchanged. However, a poor expert routing strategy (e.g. one resulting in load imbalance) can cause certain experts to be under-trained, leading to an expert being under or over-specialized. Prior work allocates a fixed number of experts to each token using a top-k function regardless of the relative importance of different tokens. To address this, we propose a heterogeneous mixture-of-experts employing an expert choice method. Instead of letting tokens select the top-k experts, we have experts selecting the top-k tokens. As a result, each token can be routed to a variable number of experts and each expert can have a fixed bucket size. We systematically study pre-training speedups using the same computational resources of the Switch Transformer top-1 and GShard top-2 gating of prior work and find that our method improves training convergence time by more than 2x. For the same computational cost, our method demonstrates higher performance in fine-tuning 11 selected tasks in the GLUE and SuperGLUE benchmarks. For a smaller activation cost, our method outperforms the T5 dense model in 7 out of the 11 tasks.

Skill extraction and recommendation systems have been studied from recruiter, applicant, and education perspectives. While AI applications in job advertisements have received broad attention, deficiencies in the instructed skills side remain a challenge. In this work, we address the scarcity of publicly available datasets by releasing both manually annotated and synthetic datasets of skills from the European Skills, Competences, Qualifications and Occupations (ESCO) taxonomy and university course pairs and publishing corresponding annotation guidelines. Specifically, we match graduate-level university courses with skills from the Systems Analysts and Management and Organization Analyst ESCO occupation groups at two granularities: course title with a skill, and course sentence with a skill. We train language models on this dataset to serve as a baseline for retrieval and recommendation systems for course-to-skill and skill-to-course matching. We evaluate the models on a portion of the annotated data. Our BERT model achieves 87% F1-score, showing that course and skill matching is a feasible task.

Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in various complex tasks, yet they still suffer from hallucinations. Introducing external knowledge, such as knowledge graph, can enhance the LLMs' ability to provide factual answers. LLMs have the ability to interactively explore knowledge graphs. However, most approaches have been affected by insufficient internal knowledge excavation in LLMs, limited generation of trustworthy knowledge reasoning paths, and a vague integration between internal and external knowledge. Therefore, we propose KnowPath, a knowledge-enhanced large model framework driven by the collaboration of internal and external knowledge. It relies on the internal knowledge of the LLM to guide the exploration of interpretable directed subgraphs in external knowledge graphs, better integrating the two knowledge sources for more accurate reasoning. Extensive experiments on multiple real-world datasets confirm the superiority of KnowPath.

We propose Chain-of-Experts (CoE), a new Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) architecture that introduces sequential expert communication within each layer. Unlike traditional MoE models, where experts operate independently in parallel, CoE processes tokens iteratively across a chain of experts inside a layer. To support dynamic expert selection across iterations, CoE employs a dedicated router at each iteration step within a layer. This design allows tokens to re-evaluate and select different experts during each iteration, rather than being statically assigned. As a result, CoE introduces a flexible routing mechanism that increases the diversity of expert combinations and enriches the model's representational capacity. CoE demonstrates improved performance under fixed compute: on math reasoning tasks, it reduces validation loss from 1.20 to 1.12 compared to a standard MoE. Beyond performance, CoE offers a new scaling axis: depth through expert iteration, which complements conventional width/depth scaling. For example, using 2x iterations matches the performance of 3x expert selections (in width), while reducing memory usage by 17.6-42% relative to other scaling strategies. Our analysis reveals that CoE's benefits stem from its iterative residual structure and enhanced expert specialization empowered by iterative routing, which together unlock more expressive representations. Code is available at https://github.com/ZihanWang314/coe.

Suicide is an important but often misunderstood problem, one that researchers are now seeking to better understand through social media. Due in large part to the fuzzy nature of what constitutes suicidal risks, most supervised approaches for learning to automatically detect suicide-related activity in social media require a great deal of human labor to train. However, humans themselves have diverse or conflicting views on what constitutes suicidal thoughts. So how to obtain reliable gold standard labels is fundamentally challenging and, we hypothesize, depends largely on what is asked of the annotators and what slice of the data they label. We conducted multiple rounds of data labeling and collected annotations from crowdsourcing workers and domain experts. We aggregated the resulting labels in various ways to train a series of supervised models. Our preliminary evaluations show that using unanimously agreed labels from multiple annotators is helpful to achieve robust machine models.

In this paper, we introduce a novel dynamic expert selection framework for Mixture of Experts (MoE) models, aiming to enhance computational efficiency and model performance by adjusting the number of activated experts based on input difficulty. Unlike traditional MoE approaches that rely on fixed Top-K routing, which activates a predetermined number of experts regardless of the input's complexity, our method dynamically selects experts based on the confidence level in expert selection for each input. This allows for a more efficient utilization of computational resources, activating more experts for complex tasks requiring advanced reasoning and fewer for simpler tasks. Through extensive evaluations, our dynamic routing method demonstrates substantial improvements over conventional Top-2 routing across various benchmarks, achieving an average improvement of 0.7% with less than 90% activated parameters. Further analysis shows our model dispatches more experts to tasks requiring complex reasoning skills, like BBH, confirming its ability to dynamically allocate computational resources in alignment with the input's complexity. Our findings also highlight a variation in the number of experts needed across different layers of the transformer model, offering insights into the potential for designing heterogeneous MoE frameworks. The code and models are available at https://github.com/ZhenweiAn/Dynamic_MoE.

Motivation: Biomedical knowledge graphs (KGs) are crucial for drug discovery and disease understanding, yet their completion and reasoning are challenging. Knowledge Embedding (KE) methods capture global semantics but struggle with dynamic structural integration, while Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) excel locally but often lack semantic understanding. Even ensemble approaches, including those leveraging language models, often fail to achieve a deep, adaptive, and synergistic co-evolution between semantic comprehension and structural learning. Addressing this critical gap in fostering continuous, reciprocal refinement between these two aspects in complex biomedical KGs is paramount. Results: We introduce BioGraphFusion, a novel framework for deeply synergistic semantic and structural learning. BioGraphFusion establishes a global semantic foundation via tensor decomposition, guiding an LSTM-driven mechanism to dynamically refine relation embeddings during graph propagation. This fosters adaptive interplay between semantic understanding and structural learning, further enhanced by query-guided subgraph construction and a hybrid scoring mechanism. Experiments across three key biomedical tasks demonstrate BioGraphFusion's superior performance over state-of-the-art KE, GNN, and ensemble models. A case study on Cutaneous Malignant Melanoma 1 (CMM1) highlights its ability to unveil biologically meaningful pathways. Availability and Implementation: Source code and all training data are freely available for download at https://github.com/Y-TARL/BioGraphFusion. Supplementary information: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

The sheer volume of financial statements makes it difficult for humans to access and analyze a business's financials. Robust numerical reasoning likewise faces unique challenges in this domain. In this work, we focus on answering deep questions over financial data, aiming to automate the analysis of a large corpus of financial documents. In contrast to existing tasks on general domain, the finance domain includes complex numerical reasoning and understanding of heterogeneous representations. To facilitate analytical progress, we propose a new large-scale dataset, FinQA, with Question-Answering pairs over Financial reports, written by financial experts. We also annotate the gold reasoning programs to ensure full explainability. We further introduce baselines and conduct comprehensive experiments in our dataset. The results demonstrate that popular, large, pre-trained models fall far short of expert humans in acquiring finance knowledge and in complex multi-step numerical reasoning on that knowledge. Our dataset -- the first of its kind -- should therefore enable significant, new community research into complex application domains. The dataset and code are publicly availablehttps://github.com/czyssrs/FinQA.

Large language models (LLMs) have made remarkable strides in various natural language processing tasks, but their performance on complex reasoning problems remains hindered by a lack of explainability and trustworthiness. This issue, often manifesting as hallucinations or unattributable reasoning processes, limits their applicability in complex reasoning scenarios. To address this, we propose Knowledge Graph-constrained Trajectory Reasoning Attribution and Chain Explanation Supervision (KG-TRACES), a novel framework that enhances the reasoning ability of LLMs through explicit supervision over reasoning paths and processes. KG-TRACES jointly supervises the model to: (1) predict symbolic relation paths, (2) predict full triple-level reasoning paths, and (3) generate attribution-aware reasoning processes grounded in the reasoning paths. At inference phase, the model adapts to both KG-available and KG-unavailable scenarios, retrieving reasoning paths from a KG when possible or predicting plausible reasoning paths with only intrinsic knowledge when not. This design enables the model to reason in an explainable and source-attributable pattern. Through extensive experiments on complex reasoning tasks, we demonstrate that KG-TRACES significantly outperforms existing SOTA: it improves Hits@1 by 1.6% and F1 by 4.7% on WebQSP, and achieves improvements of 4.8% in Hits@1 and 2.1% in F1 on CWQ. Moreover, we show its transferability to specialized domains such as medicine. By visualizing the intermediate steps of reasoning processes, we further show that the explicit supervision introduced by KG-TRACES leads to more stable and goal-directed reasoning processes, aligning closely with correct answers. Code is available at https://github.com/Edaizi/KG-TRACES.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have achieved remarkable advancements, but their monolithic nature presents challenges in terms of scalability, cost, and customization. This paper introduces the Composition of Experts (CoE), a modular compound AI system leveraging multiple expert LLMs. CoE leverages a router to dynamically select the most appropriate expert for a given input, enabling efficient utilization of resources and improved performance. We formulate the general problem of training a CoE and discuss inherent complexities associated with it. We propose a two-step routing approach to address these complexities that first uses a router to classify the input into distinct categories followed by a category-to-expert mapping to obtain desired experts. CoE offers a flexible and cost-effective solution to build compound AI systems. Our empirical evaluation demonstrates the effectiveness of CoE in achieving superior performance with reduced computational overhead. Given that CoE comprises of many expert LLMs it has unique system requirements for cost-effective serving. We present an efficient implementation of CoE leveraging SambaNova SN40L RDUs unique three-tiered memory architecture. CoEs obtained using open weight LLMs Qwen/Qwen2-7B-Instruct, google/gemma-2-9b-it, google/gemma-2-27b-it, meta-llama/Llama-3.1-70B-Instruct and Qwen/Qwen2-72B-Instruct achieve a score of 59.4 with merely 31 billion average active parameters on Arena-Hard and a score of 9.06 with 54 billion average active parameters on MT-Bench.

Vision-Language Models (VLMs) are advancing computational pathology with superior visual understanding capabilities. However, current systems often reduce diagnosis to directly output conclusions without verifiable evidence-linked reasoning, which severely limits clinical trust and hinders expert error rectification. To address these barriers, we construct PathReasoner, the first large-scale dataset of whole-slide image (WSI) reasoning. Unlike previous work reliant on unverified distillation, we develop a rigorous knowledge-guided generation pipeline. By leveraging medical knowledge graphs, we explicitly align structured pathological findings and clinical reasoning with diagnoses, generating over 20K high-quality instructional samples. Based on the database, we propose PathReasoner-R1, which synergizes trajectory-masked supervised fine-tuning with reasoning-oriented reinforcement learning to instill structured chain-of-thought capabilities. To ensure medical rigor, we engineer a knowledge-aware multi-granular reward function incorporating an Entity Reward mechanism strictly aligned with knowledge graphs. This effectively guides the model to optimize for logical consistency rather than mere outcome matching, thereby enhancing robustness. Extensive experiments demonstrate that PathReasoner-R1 achieves state-of-the-art performance on both PathReasoner and public benchmarks across various image scales, equipping pathology models with transparent, clinically grounded reasoning capabilities. Dataset and code are available at https://github.com/cyclexfy/PathReasoner-R1.

Gene set analysis (GSA) is a foundational approach for interpreting genomic data of diseases by linking genes to biological processes. However, conventional GSA methods overlook clinical context of the analyses, often generating long lists of enriched pathways with redundant, nonspecific, or irrelevant results. Interpreting these requires extensive, ad-hoc manual effort, reducing both reliability and reproducibility. To address this limitation, we introduce cGSA, a novel AI-driven framework that enhances GSA by incorporating context-aware pathway prioritization. cGSA integrates gene cluster detection, enrichment analysis, and large language models to identify pathways that are not only statistically significant but also biologically meaningful. Benchmarking on 102 manually curated gene sets across 19 diseases and ten disease-related biological mechanisms shows that cGSA outperforms baseline methods by over 30%, with expert validation confirming its increased precision and interpretability. Two independent case studies in melanoma and breast cancer further demonstrate its potential to uncover context-specific insights and support targeted hypothesis generation.

Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable proficiency in mainstream academic disciplines such as mathematics, physics, and computer science. However, human knowledge encompasses over 200 specialized disciplines, far exceeding the scope of existing benchmarks. The capabilities of LLMs in many of these specialized fields-particularly in light industry, agriculture, and service-oriented disciplines-remain inadequately evaluated. To address this gap, we present SuperGPQA, a comprehensive benchmark that evaluates graduate-level knowledge and reasoning capabilities across 285 disciplines. Our benchmark employs a novel Human-LLM collaborative filtering mechanism to eliminate trivial or ambiguous questions through iterative refinement based on both LLM responses and expert feedback. Our experimental results reveal significant room for improvement in the performance of current state-of-the-art LLMs across diverse knowledge domains (e.g., the reasoning-focused model DeepSeek-R1 achieved the highest accuracy of 61.82% on SuperGPQA), highlighting the considerable gap between current model capabilities and artificial general intelligence. Additionally, we present comprehensive insights from our management of a large-scale annotation process, involving over 80 expert annotators and an interactive Human-LLM collaborative system, offering valuable methodological guidance for future research initiatives of comparable scope.

The rapid expansion of medical literature presents growing challenges for structuring and integrating domain knowledge at scale. Knowledge Graphs (KGs) offer a promising solution by enabling efficient retrieval, automated reasoning, and knowledge discovery. However, current KG construction methods often rely on supervised pipelines with limited generalizability or naively aggregate outputs from Large Language Models (LLMs), treating biomedical corpora as static and ignoring the temporal dynamics and contextual uncertainty of evolving knowledge. To address these limitations, we introduce MedKGent, a LLM agent framework for constructing temporally evolving medical KGs. Leveraging over 10 million PubMed abstracts published between 1975 and 2023, we simulate the emergence of biomedical knowledge via a fine-grained daily time series. MedKGent incrementally builds the KG in a day-by-day manner using two specialized agents powered by the Qwen2.5-32B-Instruct model. The Extractor Agent identifies knowledge triples and assigns confidence scores via sampling-based estimation, which are used to filter low-confidence extractions and inform downstream processing. The Constructor Agent incrementally integrates the retained triples into a temporally evolving graph, guided by confidence scores and timestamps to reinforce recurring knowledge and resolve conflicts. The resulting KG contains 156,275 entities and 2,971,384 relational triples. Quality assessments by two SOTA LLMs and three domain experts demonstrate an accuracy approaching 90%, with strong inter-rater agreement. To evaluate downstream utility, we conduct RAG across seven medical question answering benchmarks using five leading LLMs, consistently observing significant improvements over non-augmented baselines. Case studies further demonstrate the KG's value in literature-based drug repurposing via confidence-aware causal inference.

Sparse Mixture of Experts (SMoE) has emerged as a key to achieving unprecedented scalability in deep learning. By activating only a small subset of parameters per sample, SMoE achieves an exponential increase in parameter counts while maintaining a constant computational overhead. However, SMoE models are susceptible to routing fluctuations--changes in the routing of a given input to its target expert--at the late stage of model training, leading to model non-robustness. In this work, we unveil the limitation of SMoE through the perspective of the probabilistic graphical model (PGM). Through this PGM framework, we highlight the independence in the expert-selection of tokens, which exposes the model to routing fluctuation and non-robustness. Alleviating this independence, we propose the novel Similarity-Aware (S)MoE, which considers interactions between tokens during expert selection. We then derive a new PGM underlying an (S)MoE-Attention block, going beyond just a single (S)MoE layer. Leveraging the token similarities captured by the attention matrix, we propose the innovative Attention-Aware (S)MoE, which employs the attention matrix to guide the routing of tokens to appropriate experts in (S)MoE. We theoretically prove that Similarity/Attention-Aware routing help reduce the entropy of expert selection, resulting in more stable token routing mechanisms. We empirically validate our models on various tasks and domains, showing significant improvements in reducing routing fluctuations, enhancing accuracy, and increasing model robustness over the baseline MoE-Transformer with token routing via softmax gating.

Skill Extraction (SE) is an important and widely-studied task useful to gain insights into labor market dynamics. However, there is a lacuna of datasets and annotation guidelines; available datasets are few and contain crowd-sourced labels on the span-level or labels from a predefined skill inventory. To address this gap, we introduce SKILLSPAN, a novel SE dataset consisting of 14.5K sentences and over 12.5K annotated spans. We release its respective guidelines created over three different sources annotated for hard and soft skills by domain experts. We introduce a BERT baseline (Devlin et al., 2019). To improve upon this baseline, we experiment with language models that are optimized for long spans (Joshi et al., 2020; Beltagy et al., 2020), continuous pre-training on the job posting domain (Han and Eisenstein, 2019; Gururangan et al., 2020), and multi-task learning (Caruana, 1997). Our results show that the domain-adapted models significantly outperform their non-adapted counterparts, and single-task outperforms multi-task learning.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown promise for financial applications, yet their suitability for this high-stakes domain remains largely unproven due to inadequacies in existing benchmarks. Existing benchmarks solely rely on score-level evaluation, summarizing performance with a single score that obscures the nuanced understanding of what models truly know and their precise limitations. They also rely on datasets that cover only a narrow subset of financial concepts, while overlooking other essentials for real-world applications. To address these gaps, we introduce FinCDM, the first cognitive diagnosis evaluation framework tailored for financial LLMs, enabling the evaluation of LLMs at the knowledge-skill level, identifying what financial skills and knowledge they have or lack based on their response patterns across skill-tagged tasks, rather than a single aggregated number. We construct CPA-QKA, the first cognitively informed financial evaluation dataset derived from the Certified Public Accountant (CPA) examination, with comprehensive coverage of real-world accounting and financial skills. It is rigorously annotated by domain experts, who author, validate, and annotate questions with high inter-annotator agreement and fine-grained knowledge labels. Our extensive experiments on 30 proprietary, open-source, and domain-specific LLMs show that FinCDM reveals hidden knowledge gaps, identifies under-tested areas such as tax and regulatory reasoning overlooked by traditional benchmarks, and uncovers behavioral clusters among models. FinCDM introduces a new paradigm for financial LLM evaluation by enabling interpretable, skill-aware diagnosis that supports more trustworthy and targeted model development, and all datasets and evaluation scripts will be publicly released to support further research.

Recent advances in large language models (LLMs) have fueled the vision of automated scientific discovery, often called AI Co-Scientists. To date, prior work casts these systems as generative co-authors responsible for crafting hypotheses, synthesizing code, or drafting manuscripts. In this work, we explore a complementary application: using LLMs as verifiers to automate the academic verification of scientific manuscripts. To that end, we introduce SPOT, a dataset of 83 published papers paired with 91 errors significant enough to prompt errata or retraction, cross-validated with actual authors and human annotators. Evaluating state-of-the-art LLMs on SPOT, we find that none surpasses 21.1\% recall or 6.1\% precision (o3 achieves the best scores, with all others near zero). Furthermore, confidence estimates are uniformly low, and across eight independent runs, models rarely rediscover the same errors, undermining their reliability. Finally, qualitative analysis with domain experts reveals that even the strongest models make mistakes resembling student-level misconceptions derived from misunderstandings. These findings highlight the substantial gap between current LLM capabilities and the requirements for dependable AI-assisted academic verification.

To help the open-source community have a better understanding of Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) based large language models (LLMs), we train and release OpenMoE, a series of fully open-sourced and reproducible decoder-only MoE LLMs, ranging from 650M to 34B parameters and trained on up to over 1T tokens. Our investigation confirms that MoE-based LLMs can offer a more favorable cost-effectiveness trade-off than dense LLMs, highlighting the potential effectiveness for future LLM development. One more important contribution of this study is an in-depth analysis of the routing mechanisms within our OpenMoE models, leading to three significant findings: Context-Independent Specialization, Early Routing Learning, and Drop-towards-the-End. We discovered that routing decisions in MoE models are predominantly based on token IDs, with minimal context relevance. The token-to-expert assignments are determined early in the pre-training phase and remain largely unchanged. This imperfect routing can result in performance degradation, particularly in sequential tasks like multi-turn conversations, where tokens appearing later in a sequence are more likely to be dropped. Finally, we rethink our design based on the above-mentioned observations and analysis. To facilitate future MoE LLM development, we propose potential strategies for mitigating the issues we found and further improving off-the-shelf MoE LLM designs.

The drug development pipeline for a new compound can last 10-20 years and cost over 10 billion. Drug repurposing offers a more time- and cost-effective alternative. Computational approaches based on biomedical knowledge graph representations have recently yielded new drug repurposing hypotheses. In this study, we present a novel, disease-specific hypergraph representation learning technique to derive contextual embeddings of biological pathways of various lengths but that all start at any given drug and all end at the disease of interest. Further, we extend this method to multi-disease hypergraphs. To determine the repurposing potential of each of the 1,522 drugs, we derive drug-specific distributions of cosine similarity values and ultimately consider the median for ranking. Cosine similarity values are computed between (1) all biological pathways starting at the considered drug and ending at the disease of interest and (2) all biological pathways starting at drugs currently prescribed against that disease and ending at the disease of interest. We illustrate our approach with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and two of its risk factors: hypertension (HTN) and type 2 diabetes (T2D). We compare each drug's rank across four hypergraph settings (single- or multi-disease): AD only, AD + HTN, AD + T2D, and AD + HTN + T2D. Notably, our framework led to the identification of two promising drugs whose repurposing potential was significantly higher in hypergraphs combining two diseases: dapagliflozin (antidiabetic; moved up, from top 32% to top 7%, across all considered drugs) and debrisoquine (antihypertensive; moved up, from top 76% to top 23%). Our approach serves as a hypothesis generation tool, to be paired with a validation pipeline relying on laboratory experiments and semi-automated parsing of the biomedical literature.

In precision medicine, quantitative multi-omic features, topological context, and textual biological knowledge play vital roles in identifying disease-critical signaling pathways and targets. Existing pipelines capture only part of these-numerical omics ignore topological context, text-centric LLMs lack quantitative grounded reasoning, and graph-only models underuse node semantics and the generalization of LLMs-limiting mechanistic interpretability. Although Process Reward Models (PRMs) aim to guide reasoning in LLMs, they remain limited by unreliable intermediate evaluation, and vulnerability to reward hacking with computational cost. These gaps motivate integrating quantitative multi-omic signals, topological structure with node annotations, and literature-scale text via LLMs, using subgraph reasoning as the principle bridge linking numeric evidence, topological knowledge and language context. Therefore, we propose GALAX (Graph Augmented LAnguage model with eXplainability), an innovative framework that integrates pretrained Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) into Large Language Models (LLMs) via reinforcement guided by a Graph Process Reward Model (GPRM), which generates disease-relevant subgraphs in a step-wise manner initiated by an LLM and iteratively evaluated by a pretrained GNN, enabling process-level supervision without explicit intermediate reasoning annotations. As an application, we also introduced Target-QA, a benchmark combining CRISPR-identified targets, multi-omic profiles, and biomedical graph knowledge across diverse cancer cell lines, which enables GNN pretraining for supervising step-wise graph construction and supports long-context reasoning over text-numeric graphs (TNGs), providing a scalable and biologically grounded framework for explainable, reinforcement-guided subgraph reasoning toward reliable and interpretable target and pathway discovery in precision medicine.

Efficiency, specialization, and adaptability to new data distributions are qualities that are hard to combine in current Large Language Models. The Mixture of Experts (MoE) architecture has been the focus of significant research because its inherent conditional computation enables such desirable properties. In this work, we focus on "upcycling" dense expert models into an MoE, aiming to improve specialization while also adding the ability to adapt to new tasks easily. We introduce Nexus, an enhanced MoE architecture with adaptive routing where the model learns to project expert embeddings from domain representations. This approach allows Nexus to flexibly add new experts after the initial upcycling through separately trained dense models, without requiring large-scale MoE training for unseen data domains. Our experiments show that Nexus achieves a relative gain of up to 2.1% over the baseline for initial upcycling, and a 18.8% relative gain for extending the MoE with a new expert by using limited finetuning data. This flexibility of Nexus is crucial to enable an open-source ecosystem where every user continuously assembles their own MoE-mix according to their needs.

Sustainability disclosure standards (e.g., GRI, SASB, TCFD, IFRS S2) are comprehensive yet lengthy, terminology-dense, and highly cross-referential, hindering structured analysis and downstream use. We present SSKG Hub (Sustainability Standards Knowledge Graph Hub), a research prototype and interactive web platform that transforms standards into auditable knowledge graphs (KGs) through an LLM-centered, expert-guided pipeline. The system integrates automatic standard identification, configurable chunking, standard-specific prompting, robust triple parsing, and provenance-aware Neo4j storage with fine-grained audit metadata. LLM extraction produces a provenance-linked Draft KG, which is reviewed, curated, and formally promoted to a Certified KG through meta-expert adjudication. A role-based governance framework covering read-only guest access, expert review and CRUD operations, meta-expert certification, and administrative oversight ensures traceability and accountability across draft and certified states. Beyond graph exploration and triple-level evidence tracing, SSKG Hub supports cross-KG fusion, KG-driven tasks, and dedicated modules for insights and curated resources. We validate the platform through a comprehensive expert-led KG review case study that demonstrates end-to-end curation and quality assurance. The web application is publicly available at www.sskg-hub.com.

The inherent non-stationarity of financial markets and the complexity of multi-modal information pose significant challenges to existing quantitative trading models. Traditional methods relying on fixed structures and unimodal data struggle to adapt to market regime shifts, while large language model (LLM)-driven solutions - despite their multi-modal comprehension - suffer from static strategies and homogeneous expert designs, lacking dynamic adjustment and fine-grained decision mechanisms. To address these limitations, we propose MM-DREX: a Multimodal-driven, Dynamically-Routed EXpert framework based on large language models. MM-DREX explicitly decouples market state perception from strategy execution to enable adaptive sequential decision-making in non-stationary environments. Specifically, it (1) introduces a vision-language model (VLM)-powered dynamic router that jointly analyzes candlestick chart patterns and long-term temporal features to allocate real-time expert weights; (2) designs four heterogeneous trading experts (trend, reversal, breakout, positioning) generating specialized fine-grained sub-strategies; and (3) proposes an SFT-RL hybrid training paradigm to synergistically optimize the router's market classification capability and experts' risk-adjusted decision-making. Extensive experiments on multi-modal datasets spanning stocks, futures, and cryptocurrencies demonstrate that MM-DREX significantly outperforms 15 baselines (including state-of-the-art financial LLMs and deep reinforcement learning models) across key metrics: total return, Sharpe ratio, and maximum drawdown, validating its robustness and generalization. Additionally, an interpretability module traces routing logic and expert behavior in real time, providing an audit trail for strategy transparency.

With PRECISE, we extended Prediction-Powered Inference to produce bias-corrected estimates of ranking evaluation metrics by combining a small human-labeled set with a large LLM-judged set. PPI is provably unbiased regardless of the LLM judge's error profile. We make it applicable to hierarchical metrics like Precision@K, where annotations are per-document but the metric is per-query, by reducing the output-space computation from O(2^|C|) to O(2^K). On the ESCI benchmark, augmenting 30 human annotations with Claude 3 Sonnet judgments reduces the standard error of Precision@4 estimates from 4.45 to 3.50 (a 21% relative reduction). In a production system, our framework correctly identified the best of three system variants from 100 human labels and 2 hours of domain-expert annotation; A/B testing confirmed this ranking with +407 bps in daily sales.

Continual Model Merging (CMM) sequentially integrates task-specific models into a unified architecture without intensive retraining. However, existing CMM methods are hindered by a fundamental saturation-redundancy dilemma: backbone-centric approaches face parameter saturation and representation interference within fixed capacities, whereas Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) variants resort to indiscriminate expansion, incurring expert redundancy and a routing bottleneck reliant on additional data-driven optimization. To resolve these challenges, we propose MADE-IT (Manifold-Aware Dynamic Expert Evolution and Implicit rouTing), an adaptive CMM method that orchestrates expert management and activation by grounding intrinsic expert representations in manifold geometry. We introduce a projection-based subspace affinity metric coupled with a distribution-aware adaptive threshold mechanism to guide autonomous expert evolution, harmonizing diversity with architectural parsimony. Furthermore, to bypass parameterized gating networks, we design a data-free and training-free implicit routing mechanism that activates experts via feature-subspace alignment. Extensive experiments demonstrate that MADE-IT consistently outperforms strong baselines in accuracy and robustness across long-horizon and shuffled task sequences, while significantly pruning redundant experts, particularly within generic modules and early layers.

Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) has been demonstrated as an efficient method to scale up models. By dynamically and sparsely selecting activated experts, MoE can effectively reduce computational costs. Despite the success, we observe that many tokens in the MoE models have uncertain routing results. These tokens have nearly equal scores for choosing each expert, and we demonstrate that this uncertainty can lead to incorrect selections. Inspired by the Global Workspace Theory (GWT), we propose a new fine-tuning method, GW-MoE, to address this issue. The core idea is to broadcast the uncertain tokens across experts during fine-tuning. Therefore, these tokens can acquire the necessary knowledge from any expert during inference and become less sensitive to the choice. GW-MoE does not introduce additional inference overhead. We validate that GW can mitigate the uncertain problem and consistently improve in different tasks (text classification, question answering, summarization, code generation, and mathematical problem solving) and model sizes (650M and 8B parameters).

The advancement of machine learning algorithms in medical image analysis requires the expansion of training datasets. A popular and cost-effective approach is automated annotation extraction from free-text medical reports, primarily due to the high costs associated with expert clinicians annotating medical images, such as chest X-rays. However, it has been shown that the resulting datasets are susceptible to biases and shortcuts. Another strategy to increase the size of a dataset is crowdsourcing, a widely adopted practice in general computer vision with some success in medical image analysis. In a similar vein to crowdsourcing, we enhance two publicly available chest X-ray datasets by incorporating non-expert annotations. However, instead of using diagnostic labels, we annotate shortcuts in the form of tubes. We collect 3.5k chest drain annotations for NIH-CXR14, and 1k annotations for four different tube types in PadChest, and create the Non-Expert Annotations of Tubes in X-rays (NEATX) dataset. We train a chest drain detector with the non-expert annotations that generalizes well to expert labels. Moreover, we compare our annotations to those provided by experts and show "moderate" to "almost perfect" agreement. Finally, we present a pathology agreement study to raise awareness about the quality of ground truth annotations. We make our dataset available on Zenodo at https://zenodo.org/records/14944064 and our code available at https://github.com/purrlab/chestxr-label-reliability.

Transformer-based Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) models have been driving several recent technological advancements in Natural Language Processing (NLP). These MoE models adopt a router mechanism to determine which experts to activate for routing input tokens. However, existing router mechanisms allocate a fixed number of experts to each token, which neglects the varying importance of different input tokens. In this study, we propose a novel dynamic router mechanism that Dynamically Allocates a variable number of experts for Mixture-of-Experts (DA-MoE) models based on an effective token importance measure. First, we show that the Transformer attention mechanism provides a natural and effective way of calculating token importance. Second, we propose a dynamic router mechanism that effectively decides the optimal number of experts (K) and allocates the top-K experts for each input token. Third, comprehensive experiments on several benchmark datasets demonstrate that our DA-MoE approach consistently outperforms the state-of-the-art Transformer based MoE model on the popular GLUE benchmark.

This paper presents a hybrid framework for literature reviews that augments traditional bibliometric methods with large language models (LLMs). By fine-tuning open-source LLMs, our approach enables scalable extraction of qualitative insights from large volumes of research content, enhancing both the breadth and depth of knowledge synthesis. To improve annotation efficiency and consistency, we introduce an error-focused validation process in which LLMs generate initial labels and human reviewers correct misclassifications. Applying this framework to over 20000 scientific articles about human migration, we demonstrate that a domain-adapted LLM can serve as a "specialist" model - capable of accurately selecting relevant studies, detecting emerging trends, and identifying critical research gaps. Notably, the LLM-assisted review reveals a growing scholarly interest in climate-induced migration. However, existing literature disproportionately centers on a narrow set of environmental hazards (e.g., floods, droughts, sea-level rise, and land degradation), while overlooking others that more directly affect human health and well-being, such as air and water pollution or infectious diseases. This imbalance highlights the need for more comprehensive research that goes beyond physical environmental changes to examine their ecological and societal consequences, particularly in shaping migration as an adaptive response. Overall, our proposed framework demonstrates the potential of fine-tuned LLMs to conduct more efficient, consistent, and insightful literature reviews across disciplines, ultimately accelerating knowledge synthesis and scientific discovery.

The advancements of language language models (LLMs) have piqued growing interest in developing LLM-based language agents to automate scientific discovery end-to-end, which has sparked both excitement and skepticism about the true capabilities of such agents. In this work, we argue that for an agent to fully automate scientific discovery, it must be able to complete all essential tasks in the workflow. Thus, we call for rigorous assessment of agents on individual tasks in a scientific workflow before making bold claims on end-to-end automation. To this end, we present ScienceAgentBench, a new benchmark for evaluating language agents for data-driven scientific discovery. To ensure the scientific authenticity and real-world relevance of our benchmark, we extract 102 tasks from 44 peer-reviewed publications in four disciplines and engage nine subject matter experts to validate them. We unify the target output for every task to a self-contained Python program file and employ an array of evaluation metrics to examine the generated programs, execution results, and costs. Each task goes through multiple rounds of manual validation by annotators and subject matter experts to ensure its annotation quality and scientific plausibility. We also propose two effective strategies to mitigate data contamination concerns. Using our benchmark, we evaluate five open-weight and proprietary LLMs, each with three frameworks: direct prompting, OpenHands, and self-debug. Given three attempts for each task, the best-performing agent can only solve 32.4% of the tasks independently and 34.3% with expert-provided knowledge. These results underscore the limited capacities of current language agents in generating code for data-driven discovery, let alone end-to-end automation for scientific research.

The rapid growth of biomedical literature and curated databases has made it increasingly difficult for researchers to systematically connect biomarker mechanisms to actionable drug combination hypotheses. We present AI Co-Scientist (CoDHy), an interactive, human-in-the-loop system for biomarker-guided drug combination hypothesis generation in cancer research. CoDHy integrates structured biomedical databases and unstructured literature evidence into a task-specific knowledge graph, which serves as the basis for graph-based reasoning and hypothesis construction. The system combines knowledge graph embeddings with agent-based reasoning to generate, validate, and rank candidate drug combinations, while explicitly grounding each hypothesis in retrievable evidence. Through a web-based interface, users can configure the scientific context, inspect intermediate results, and iteratively refine hypotheses, enabling transparent and researcher-steerable exploration rather than automated decision-making. We demonstrate CoDHy as a system for exploratory hypothesis generation and decision support in translational oncology, highlighting its design, interaction workflow, and practical use cases.

Search has emerged as core infrastructure for LLM-based agents and is widely viewed as critical on the path toward more general intelligence. Finance is a particularly demanding proving ground: analysts routinely conduct complex, multi-step searches over time-sensitive, domain-specific data, making it ideal for assessing both search proficiency and knowledge-grounded reasoning. Yet no existing open financial datasets evaluate data searching capability of end-to-end agents, largely because constructing realistic, complicated tasks requires deep financial expertise and time-sensitive data is hard to evaluate. We present FinSearchComp, the first fully open-source agent benchmark for realistic, open-domain financial search and reasoning. FinSearchComp comprises three tasks -- Time-Sensitive Data Fetching, Simple Historical Lookup, and Complex Historical Investigation -- closely reproduce real-world financial analyst workflows. To ensure difficulty and reliability, we engage 70 professional financial experts for annotation and implement a rigorous multi-stage quality-assurance pipeline. The benchmark includes 635 questions spanning global and Greater China markets, and we evaluate 21 models (products) on it. Grok 4 (web) tops the global subset, approaching expert-level accuracy. DouBao (web) leads on the Greater China subset. Experimental analyses show that equipping agents with web search and financial plugins substantially improves results on FinSearchComp, and the country origin of models and tools impact performance significantly.By aligning with realistic analyst tasks and providing end-to-end evaluation, FinSearchComp offers a professional, high-difficulty testbed for complex financial search and reasoning.

Multi-hop reasoning over financial disclosures is often a retrieval problem before it becomes a reasoning or generation problem: relevant facts are dispersed across sections, filings, companies, and years, and LLMs often expend excessive tokens navigating noisy context. Without precise Knowledge Graph (KG)-guided selection of relevant context, even strong reasoning models either fail to answer or consume excessive tokens, whereas KG-linked evidence enables models to focus their reasoning on composing already retrieved facts. We present FinReflectKG - MultiHop, a benchmark built on FinReflectKG, a temporally indexed financial KG that links audited triples to source chunks from S&P 100 filings (2022-2024). Mining frequent 2-3 hop subgraph patterns across sectors (via GICS taxonomy), we generate financial analyst style questions with exact supporting evidence from the KG. A two-phase pipeline first creates QA pairs via pattern-specific prompts, followed by a multi-criteria quality control evaluation to ensure QA validity. We then evaluate three controlled retrieval scenarios: (S1) precise KG-linked paths; (S2) text-only page windows centered on relevant text spans; and (S3) relevant page windows with randomizations and distractors. Across both reasoning and non-reasoning models, KG-guided precise retrieval yields substantial gains on the FinReflectKG - MultiHop QA benchmark dataset, boosting correctness scores by approximately 24 percent while reducing token utilization by approximately 84.5 percent compared to the page window setting, which reflects the traditional vector retrieval paradigm. Spanning intra-document, inter-year, and cross-company scopes, our work underscores the pivotal role of knowledge graphs in efficiently connecting evidence for multi-hop financial QA. We also release a curated subset of the benchmark (555 QA Pairs) to catalyze further research.

Instruction-based fine-tuning of large language models (LLMs) has achieved remarkable success in various natural language processing (NLP) tasks. Parameter-efficient fine-tuning (PEFT) methods, such as Mixture of LoRA Experts (MoLE), combine the efficiency of Low-Rank Adaptation (LoRA) with the versatility of Mixture of Experts (MoE) models, demonstrating significant potential for handling multiple downstream tasks. However, the existing routing mechanisms for MoLE often involve a trade-off between computational efficiency and predictive accuracy, and they fail to fully address the diverse expert selection demands across different transformer layers. In this work, we propose DynMoLE, a hybrid routing strategy that dynamically adjusts expert selection based on the Tsallis entropy of the router's probability distribution. This approach mitigates router uncertainty, enhances stability, and promotes more equitable expert participation, leading to faster convergence and improved model performance. Additionally, we introduce an auxiliary loss based on Tsallis entropy to further guide the model toward convergence with reduced uncertainty, thereby improving training stability and performance. Our extensive experiments on commonsense reasoning benchmarks demonstrate that DynMoLE achieves substantial performance improvements, outperforming LoRA by 9.6% and surpassing the state-of-the-art MoLE method, MoLA, by 2.3%. We also conduct a comprehensive ablation study to evaluate the contributions of DynMoLE's key components.

Large language models have achieved near-expert performance in structured reasoning domains like mathematics and programming, yet their ability to perform compositional multi-hop reasoning in specialized scientific fields remains limited. We propose a bottom-up learning paradigm in which models are grounded in axiomatic domain facts and compose them to solve complex, unseen tasks. To this end, we present a post-training pipeline, based on a combination of supervised fine-tuning and reinforcement learning (RL), in which knowledge graphs act as implicit reward models. By deriving novel reward signals from knowledge graph paths, we provide verifiable, scalable, and grounded supervision that encourages models to compose intermediate axioms rather than optimize only final answers during RL. We validate this approach in the medical domain, training a 14B model on short-hop reasoning paths (1-3 hops) and evaluating its zero-shot generalization to complex multi-hop queries (4-5 hops). Our experiments show that path-derived rewards act as a "compositional bridge", enabling our model to significantly outperform much larger models and frontier systems like GPT-5.2 and Gemini 3 Pro, on the most difficult reasoning tasks. Furthermore, we demonstrate the robustness of our approach to adversarial perturbations against option-shuffling stress tests. This work suggests that grounding the reasoning process in structured knowledge is a scalable and efficient path toward intelligent reasoning.

In the rapidly evolving field of metabolic engineering, the quest for efficient and precise gene target identification for metabolite production enhancement presents significant challenges. Traditional approaches, whether knowledge-based or model-based, are notably time-consuming and labor-intensive, due to the vast scale of research literature and the approximation nature of genome-scale metabolic model (GEM) simulations. Therefore, we propose a new task, Gene-Metabolite Association Prediction based on metabolic graphs, to automate the process of candidate gene discovery for a given pair of metabolite and candidate-associated genes, as well as presenting the first benchmark containing 2474 metabolites and 1947 genes of two commonly used microorganisms Saccharomyces cerevisiae (SC) and Issatchenkia orientalis (IO). This task is challenging due to the incompleteness of the metabolic graphs and the heterogeneity among distinct metabolisms. To overcome these limitations, we propose an Interactive Knowledge Transfer mechanism based on Metabolism Graph (IKT4Meta), which improves the association prediction accuracy by integrating the knowledge from different metabolism graphs. First, to build a bridge between two graphs for knowledge transfer, we utilize Pretrained Language Models (PLMs) with external knowledge of genes and metabolites to help generate inter-graph links, significantly alleviating the impact of heterogeneity. Second, we propagate intra-graph links from different metabolic graphs using inter-graph links as anchors. Finally, we conduct the gene-metabolite association prediction based on the enriched metabolism graphs, which integrate the knowledge from multiple microorganisms. Experiments on both types of organisms demonstrate that our proposed methodology outperforms baselines by up to 12.3% across various link prediction frameworks.

Classifying patents by their relevance to the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is crucial for tracking how innovation addresses global challenges. However, the absence of a large, labeled dataset limits the use of supervised learning. Existing methods, such as keyword searches, transfer learning, and citation-based heuristics, lack scalability and generalizability. This paper frames patent-to-SDG classification as a weak supervision problem, using citations from patents to SDG-tagged scientific publications (NPL citations) as a noisy initial signal. To address its sparsity and noise, we develop a composite labeling function (LF) that uses large language models (LLMs) to extract structured concepts, namely functions, solutions, and applications, from patents and SDG papers based on a patent ontology. Cross-domain similarity scores are computed and combined using a rank-based retrieval approach. The LF is calibrated via a custom positive-only loss that aligns with known NPL-SDG links without penalizing discovery of new SDG associations. The result is a silver-standard, soft multi-label dataset mapping patents to SDGs, enabling the training of effective multi-label regression models. We validate our approach through two complementary strategies: (1) internal validation against held-out NPL-based labels, where our method outperforms several baselines including transformer-based models, and zero-shot LLM; and (2) external validation using network modularity in patent citation, co-inventor, and co-applicant graphs, where our labels reveal greater thematic, cognitive, and organizational coherence than traditional technological classifications. These results show that weak supervision and semantic alignment can enhance SDG classification at scale.

The availability of performant pre-trained models has led to a proliferation of fine-tuned expert models that are specialized to particular domains. This has enabled the creation of powerful and adaptive routing-based "Model MoErging" methods with the goal of using expert modules to create an aggregate system with improved performance or generalization. However, existing MoErging methods often prioritize generalization to unseen tasks at the expense of performance on held-in tasks, which limits its practical applicability in real-world deployment scenarios. We observe that current token-level routing mechanisms neglect the global semantic context of the input task. This token-wise independence hinders effective expert selection for held-in tasks, as routing decisions fail to incorporate the semantic properties of the task. To address this, we propose, Global and Local Instruction Driven Expert Router (GLIDER) that integrates a multi-scale routing mechanism, encompassing a semantic global router and a learned local router. The global router leverages LLM's advanced reasoning capabilities for semantic-related contexts to enhance expert selection. Given the input query and LLM, the router generates semantic task instructions that guide the retrieval of the most relevant experts across all layers. This global guidance is complemented by a local router that facilitates token-level routing decisions within each module, enabling finer control and enhanced performance on unseen tasks. Our experiments using T5-based models for T0 and FLAN tasks demonstrate that GLIDER achieves substantially improved held-in performance while maintaining strong generalization on held-out tasks. We also perform ablations experiments to dive deeper into the components of GLIDER. Our experiments highlight the importance of our multi-scale routing that leverages LLM-driven semantic reasoning for MoErging methods.

Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) architectures have become the key to scaling modern LLMs, yet little is understood about how their sparse routing dynamics respond to multilingual data. In this work, we analyze expert routing patterns using parallel multilingual datasets and present highly interpretable layer-wise phenomena. We find that MoE models route tokens in language-specific ways in the early and late decoder layers but exhibit significant cross-lingual routing alignment in middle layers, mirroring parameter-sharing trends observed in dense LLMs. In particular, we reveal a clear, strong correlation between a model's performance in a given language and how similarly its tokens are routed to English in these layers. Extending beyond correlation, we explore inference-time interventions that induce higher cross-lingual routing alignment. We introduce a method that steers the router by promoting middle-layer task experts frequently activated in English, and it successfully increases multilingual performance. These 1-2% gains are remarkably consistent across two evaluation tasks, three models, and 15+ languages, especially given that these simple interventions override routers of extensively trained, state-of-the-art LLMs. In comparison, interventions outside of the middle layers or targeting multilingual-specialized experts only yield performance degradation. Altogether, we present numerous findings that explain how MoEs process non-English text and demonstrate that generalization is limited by the model's ability to leverage language-universal experts in all languages.

Large language model (LLM) agents perform well in sequential decision-making tasks, but improving them on unfamiliar domains often requires costly online interactions or fine-tuning on large expert datasets. These strategies are impractical for closed-source models and expensive for open-source ones, with risks of catastrophic forgetting. Offline trajectories offer reusable knowledge, yet demonstration-based methods struggle because raw traces are long, noisy, and tied to specific tasks. We present Just-in-time Episodic Feedback Hinter (JEF Hinter), an agentic system that distills offline traces into compact, context-aware hints. A zooming mechanism highlights decisive steps in long trajectories, capturing both strategies and pitfalls. Unlike prior methods, JEF Hinter leverages both successful and failed trajectories, extracting guidance even when only failure data is available, while supporting parallelized hint generation and benchmark-independent prompting. At inference, a retriever selects relevant hints for the current state, providing targeted guidance with transparency and traceability. Experiments on MiniWoB++, WorkArena-L1, and WebArena-Lite show that JEF Hinter consistently outperforms strong baselines, including human- and document-based hints.

Sparse Mixture of Experts (MoE) models, while outperforming dense Large Language Models (LLMs) in terms of performance, face significant deployment challenges during inference due to their high memory demands. Existing offloading techniques, which involve swapping activated and idle experts between the GPU and CPU, often suffer from rigid expert caching mechanisms. These mechanisms fail to adapt to dynamic routing, leading to inefficient cache utilization, or incur prohibitive costs for prediction training. To tackle these inference-specific challenges, we introduce ExpertFlow, a comprehensive system specifically designed to enhance inference efficiency by accommodating flexible routing and enabling efficient expert scheduling between CPU and GPU. This reduces overhead and boosts system performance. Central to our approach is a predictive routing path-based offloading mechanism that utilizes a lightweight predictor to accurately forecast routing paths before computation begins. This proactive strategy allows for real-time error correction in expert caching, significantly increasing cache hit ratios and reducing the frequency of expert transfers, thereby minimizing I/O overhead. Additionally, we implement a dynamic token scheduling strategy that optimizes MoE inference by rearranging input tokens across different batches. This method not only reduces the number of activated experts per batch but also improves computational efficiency. Our extensive experiments demonstrate that ExpertFlow achieves up to 93.72\% GPU memory savings and enhances inference speed by 2 to 10 times compared to baseline methods, highlighting its effectiveness and utility as a robust solution for resource-constrained inference scenarios.

Skills play a central role in the job market and many human resources (HR) processes. In the wake of other digital experiences, today's online job market has candidates expecting to see the right opportunities based on their skill set. Similarly, enterprises increasingly need to use data to guarantee that the skills within their workforce remain future-proof. However, structured information about skills is often missing, and processes building on self- or manager-assessment have shown to struggle with issues around adoption, completeness, and freshness of the resulting data. Extracting skills is a highly challenging task, given the many thousands of possible skill labels mentioned either explicitly or merely described implicitly and the lack of finely annotated training corpora. Previous work on skill extraction overly simplifies the task to an explicit entity detection task or builds on manually annotated training data that would be infeasible if applied to a complete vocabulary of skills. We propose an end-to-end system for skill extraction, based on distant supervision through literal matching. We propose and evaluate several negative sampling strategies, tuned on a small validation dataset, to improve the generalization of skill extraction towards implicitly mentioned skills, despite the lack of such implicit skills in the distantly supervised data. We observe that using the ESCO taxonomy to select negative examples from related skills yields the biggest improvements, and combining three different strategies in one model further increases the performance, up to 8 percentage points in RP@5. We introduce a manually annotated evaluation benchmark for skill extraction based on the ESCO taxonomy, on which we validate our models. We release the benchmark dataset for research purposes to stimulate further research on the task.

We model Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) token routing as a congestion game with a single effective parameter, the congestion coefficient gamma_eff, that quantifies the balance-quality tradeoff. Tracking gamma_eff across training checkpoints of two open-source MoE models, OLMoE-1B-7B (20 checkpoints, with dense sampling in the surge region) and OpenMoE-8B (6 checkpoints), reveals a three-phase trajectory: a surge phase where the router learns to balance load (gamma_eff: 14 to 36-39, peaking in the step 30K-40K region), a stabilization phase where experts specialize under steady balance (B_0: 2.4 to 2.3, steps 100K-400K), and a relaxation phase where the router trades balance for quality as experts differentiate (gamma_eff: 27 to 9, steps 400K-1.2M). This non-monotone trajectory, invisible to post-hoc analysis of converged models, reveals that early MoE training prioritizes balance while late training prioritizes quality. The theoretical framework is honest about its limits: the single-type equilibrium reduces to temperature-scaled softmax (held-out L1: MFG = 0.199 vs. softmax = 0.200). The game is not a better predictor; it reveals what the temperature means and, critically, how that temperature evolves. We complement the dynamics with an effective congestion decomposition, a multi-type extension that improves load prediction via token clustering on all 16 layers (mean: 30%), scope diagnostics (K/M, epsilon_l), and robustness verification across four independent quality estimators (r >= 0.89). All confidence intervals are from bootstrap resampling over 50 independent text batches.

We propose a novel approach to enhancing the performance and efficiency of large language models (LLMs) by combining domain prompt routing with domain-specialized models. We introduce a system that utilizes a BERT-based router to direct incoming prompts to the most appropriate domain expert model. These expert models are specifically tuned for domains such as health, mathematics and science. Our research demonstrates that this approach can significantly outperform general-purpose models of comparable size, leading to a superior performance-to-cost ratio across various benchmarks. The implications of this study suggest a potential paradigm shift in LLM development and deployment. Rather than focusing solely on creating increasingly large, general-purpose models, the future of AI may lie in developing ecosystems of smaller, highly specialized models coupled with sophisticated routing systems. This approach could lead to more efficient resource utilization, reduced computational costs, and superior overall performance.

In recent years, graph representation learning has undergone a paradigm shift, driven by the emergence and proliferation of graph neural networks (GNNs) and their heterogeneous counterparts. Heterogeneous GNNs have shown remarkable success in extracting low-dimensional embeddings from complex graphs that encompass diverse entity types and relationships. While meta-path-based techniques have long been recognized for their ability to capture semantic affinities among nodes, their dependence on manual specification poses a significant limitation. In contrast, matrix-focused methods accelerate processing by utilizing structural cues but often overlook contextual richness. In this paper, we challenge the current paradigm by introducing ontology as a fundamental semantic primitive within complex graphs. Our goal is to integrate the strengths of both matrix-centric and meta-path-based approaches into a unified framework. We propose perturbation Ontology-based Graph Attention Networks (POGAT), a novel methodology that combines ontology subgraphs with an advanced self-supervised learning paradigm to achieve a deep contextual understanding. The core innovation of POGAT lies in our enhanced homogeneous perturbing scheme designed to generate rigorous negative samples, encouraging the model to explore minimal contextual features more thoroughly. Through extensive empirical evaluations, we demonstrate that POGAT significantly outperforms state-of-the-art baselines, achieving a groundbreaking improvement of up to 10.78\% in F1-score for the critical task of link prediction and 12.01\% in Micro-F1 for the critical task of node classification.

Sparse Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) has become a key architecture for scaling large language models (LLMs) efficiently. Recent fine-grained MoE designs introduce hundreds of experts per layer, with multiple experts activated per token, enabling stronger specialization. However, during pre-training, routers are optimized mainly for stability and robustness: they converge prematurely and enforce balanced usage, limiting the full potential of model performance and efficiency at inference. In this work, we uncover two overlooked issues: (i) a few highly influential experts are underutilized due to premature and balanced routing decisions; and (ii) enforcing a fixed number of active experts per token introduces substantial redundancy. Instead of retraining models or redesigning MoE architectures, we introduce Ban&Pick, a post-training, plug-and-play strategy for smarter routing. Pick discovers and reinforces key experts-a small group with outsized impact on performance-leading to notable accuracy gains across domains. Ban further dynamically prunes redundant experts based on layer and token sensitivity, delivering faster inference with minimal accuracy loss. Experiments on fine-grained MoE-LLMs (DeepSeek, Qwen3) across math, code, and general reasoning benchmarks demonstrate that Ban\&Pick delivers free performance gains and inference acceleration without retraining or architectural changes. For instance, on Qwen3-30B-A3B, it improves accuracy from 80.67 to 84.66 on AIME2024 and from 65.66 to 68.18 on GPQA-Diamond, while accelerating inference by 1.25x under the vLLM.

Mixture of Experts models are widely assumed to achieve domain specialization through sparse routing. In this work, we question this assumption by introducing COMMITTEEAUDIT, a post hoc framework that analyzes routing behavior at the level of expert groups rather than individual experts. Across three representative models and the MMLU benchmark, we uncover a domain-invariant Standing Committee. This is a compact coalition of routed experts that consistently captures the majority of routing mass across domains, layers, and routing budgets, even when architectures already include shared experts. Qualitative analysis further shows that Standing Committees anchor reasoning structure and syntax, while peripheral experts handle domain-specific knowledge. These findings reveal a strong structural bias toward centralized computation, suggesting that specialization in Mixture of Experts models is far less pervasive than commonly believed. This inherent bias also indicates that current training objectives, such as load-balancing losses that enforce uniform expert utilization, may be working against the model's natural optimization path, thereby limiting training efficiency and performance.

The financial domain poses unique challenges for knowledge graph (KG) construction at scale due to the complexity and regulatory nature of financial documents. Despite the critical importance of structured financial knowledge, the field lacks large-scale, open-source datasets capturing rich semantic relationships from corporate disclosures. We introduce an open-source, large-scale financial knowledge graph dataset built from the latest annual SEC 10-K filings of all S and P 100 companies - a comprehensive resource designed to catalyze research in financial AI. We propose a robust and generalizable knowledge graph (KG) construction framework that integrates intelligent document parsing, table-aware chunking, and schema-guided iterative extraction with a reflection-driven feedback loop. Our system incorporates a comprehensive evaluation pipeline, combining rule-based checks, statistical validation, and LLM-as-a-Judge assessments to holistically measure extraction quality. We support three extraction modes - single-pass, multi-pass, and reflection-agent-based - allowing flexible trade-offs between efficiency, accuracy, and reliability based on user requirements. Empirical evaluations demonstrate that the reflection-agent-based mode consistently achieves the best balance, attaining a 64.8 percent compliance score against all rule-based policies (CheckRules) and outperforming baseline methods (single-pass and multi-pass) across key metrics such as precision, comprehensiveness, and relevance in LLM-guided evaluations.

Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) models mostly use a router to assign tokens to specific expert modules, activating only partial parameters and often outperforming dense models. We argue that the separation between the router's decision-making and the experts' execution is a critical yet overlooked issue, leading to suboptimal expert selection and ineffective learning. To address this, we propose Autonomy-of-Experts (AoE), a novel MoE paradigm in which experts autonomously select themselves to process inputs. AoE is based on the insight that an expert is aware of its own capacity to effectively process a token, an awareness reflected in the scale of its internal activations. In AoE, routers are removed; instead, experts pre-compute internal activations for inputs and are ranked based on their activation norms. Only the top-ranking experts proceed with the forward pass, while the others abort. The overhead of pre-computing activations is reduced through a low-rank weight factorization. This self-evaluating-then-partner-comparing approach ensures improved expert selection and effective learning. We pre-train language models having 700M up to 4B parameters, demonstrating that AoE outperforms traditional MoE models with comparable efficiency.

Modern analyst agents must reason over complex, high token inputs, including dozens of retrieved documents, tool outputs, and time sensitive data. While prior work has produced tool calling benchmarks and examined factuality in knowledge augmented systems, relatively little work studies their intersection: settings where LLMs must integrate large volumes of dynamic, structured and unstructured multi tool outputs. We investigate LLM failure modes in this regime using crypto as a representative high data density domain. We introduce (1) CryptoAnalystBench, an analyst aligned benchmark of 198 production crypto and DeFi queries spanning 11 categories; (2) an agentic harness equipped with relevant crypto and DeFi tools to generate responses across multiple frontier LLMs; and (3) an evaluation pipeline with citation verification and an LLM as a judge rubric spanning four user defined success dimensions: relevance, temporal relevance, depth, and data consistency. Using human annotation, we develop a taxonomy of seven higher order error types that are not reliably captured by factuality checks or LLM based quality scoring. We find that these failures persist even in state of the art systems and can compromise high stakes decisions. Based on this taxonomy, we refine the judge rubric to better capture these errors. While the judge does not align with human annotators on precise scoring across rubric iterations, it reliably identifies critical failure modes, enabling scalable feedback for developers and researchers studying analyst style agents. We release CryptoAnalystBench with annotated queries, the evaluation pipeline, judge rubrics, and the error taxonomy, and outline mitigation strategies and open challenges in evaluating long form, multi tool augmented systems.

We introduce FinDVer, a comprehensive benchmark specifically designed to evaluate the explainable claim verification capabilities of LLMs in the context of understanding and analyzing long, hybrid-content financial documents. FinDVer contains 2,400 expert-annotated examples, divided into three subsets: information extraction, numerical reasoning, and knowledge-intensive reasoning, each addressing common scenarios encountered in real-world financial contexts. We assess a broad spectrum of LLMs under long-context and RAG settings. Our results show that even the current best-performing system, GPT-4o, still lags behind human experts. We further provide in-depth analysis on long-context and RAG setting, Chain-of-Thought reasoning, and model reasoning errors, offering insights to drive future advancements. We believe that FinDVer can serve as a valuable benchmark for evaluating LLMs in claim verification over complex, expert-domain documents.

Scaling the size of a model enhances its capabilities but significantly increases computation complexity. Mixture-of-Experts models (MoE) address the issue by allowing model size to scale up without substantially increasing training or inference costs. Despite their promising results, MoE models encounter several challenges. Primarily, for dynamic routing methods, the dispersion of training tokens across multiple experts can lead to underfitting, particularly for infrequent tokens. Additionally, while fixed routing methods can mitigate that issue, they compromise on the diversity of representations. In this paper, we propose MaskMoE, a method designed to enhance token-level learning by employing a routing masking technique within the Mixture-of-Experts model. MaskMoE is capable of maintaining representation diversity while achieving more comprehensive training. Experimental results demonstrate that our method outperforms previous dominant Mixture-of-Experts models in terms of both perplexity (PPL) and downstream task performance.

Frontier model progress is often measured by academic benchmarks, which offer a limited view of performance in real-world professional contexts. Existing evaluations often fail to assess open-ended, economically consequential tasks in high-stakes domains like Legal and Finance, where practical returns are paramount. To address this, we introduce Professional Reasoning Bench (PRBench), a realistic, open-ended, and difficult benchmark of real-world problems in Finance and Law. We open-source its 1,100 expert-authored tasks and 19,356 expert-curated criteria, making it, to our knowledge, the largest public, rubric-based benchmark for both legal and finance domains. We recruit 182 qualified professionals, holding JDs, CFAs, or 6+ years of experience, who contributed tasks inspired by their actual workflows. This process yields significant diversity, with tasks spanning 114 countries and 47 US jurisdictions. Our expert-curated rubrics are validated through a rigorous quality pipeline, including independent expert validation. Subsequent evaluation of 20 leading models reveals substantial room for improvement, with top scores of only 0.39 (Finance) and 0.37 (Legal) on our Hard subsets. We further catalog associated economic impacts of the prompts and analyze performance using human-annotated rubric categories. Our analysis shows that models with similar overall scores can diverge significantly on specific capabilities. Common failure modes include inaccurate judgments, a lack of process transparency and incomplete reasoning, highlighting critical gaps in their reliability for professional adoption.

Quantitative risk assessment in high-stakes domains relies on structured expert elicitation to estimate unobservable properties. The gold standard - the Delphi method - produces calibrated, auditable judgments but requires months of coordination and specialist time, placing rigorous risk assessment out of reach for most applications. We investigate whether Large Language Models (LLMs) can serve as scalable proxies for structured expert elicitation. We propose Scalable Delphi, adapting the classical protocol for LLMs with diverse expert personas, iterative refinement, and rationale sharing. Because target quantities are typically unobservable, we develop an evaluation framework based on necessary conditions: calibration against verifiable proxies, sensitivity to evidence, and alignment with human expert judgment. We evaluate in the domain of AI-augmented cybersecurity risk, using three capability benchmarks and independent human elicitation studies. LLM panels achieve strong correlations with benchmark ground truth (Pearson r=0.87-0.95), improve systematically as evidence is added, and align with human expert panels - in one comparison, closer to a human panel than the two human panels are to each other. This demonstrates that LLM-based elicitation can extend structured expert judgment to settings where traditional methods are infeasible, reducing elicitation time from months to minutes.

Systematic literature review is essential for evidence-based medicine, requiring comprehensive analysis of clinical trial publications. However, the application of artificial intelligence (AI) models for medical literature mining has been limited by insufficient training and evaluation across broad therapeutic areas and diverse tasks. Here, we present LEADS, an AI foundation model for study search, screening, and data extraction from medical literature. The model is trained on 633,759 instruction data points in LEADSInstruct, curated from 21,335 systematic reviews, 453,625 clinical trial publications, and 27,015 clinical trial registries. We showed that LEADS demonstrates consistent improvements over four cutting-edge generic large language models (LLMs) on six tasks. Furthermore, LEADS enhances expert workflows by providing supportive references following expert requests, streamlining processes while maintaining high-quality results. A study with 16 clinicians and medical researchers from 14 different institutions revealed that experts collaborating with LEADS achieved a recall of 0.81 compared to 0.77 experts working alone in study selection, with a time savings of 22.6%. In data extraction tasks, experts using LEADS achieved an accuracy of 0.85 versus 0.80 without using LEADS, alongside a 26.9% time savings. These findings highlight the potential of specialized medical literature foundation models to outperform generic models, delivering significant quality and efficiency benefits when integrated into expert workflows for medical literature mining.

Large Language Models (LLMs) are accelerating scientific idea generation, but rigorously evaluating these numerous, often superficial, AI-generated propositions for novelty and factual accuracy is a critical bottleneck; manual verification is too slow. Existing validation methods are inadequate: LLMs as standalone verifiers may hallucinate and lack domain knowledge (our findings show 60% unawareness of relevant papers in specific domains), while traditional citation networks lack explicit causality and narrative surveys are unstructured. This underscores a core challenge: the absence of structured, verifiable, and causally-linked historical data of scientific evolution.To address this,we introduce THE-Tree (Technology History Evolution Tree), a computational framework that constructs such domain-specific evolution trees from scientific literature. THE-Tree employs a search algorithm to explore evolutionary paths. During its node expansion, it utilizes a novel "Think-Verbalize-Cite-Verify" process: an LLM proposes potential advancements and cites supporting literature. Critically, each proposed evolutionary link is then validated for logical coherence and evidential support by a recovered natural language inference mechanism that interrogates the cited literature, ensuring that each step is grounded. We construct and validate 88 THE-Trees across diverse domains and release a benchmark dataset including up to 71k fact verifications covering 27k papers to foster further research. Experiments demonstrate that i) in graph completion, our THE-Tree improves hit@1 by 8% to 14% across multiple models compared to traditional citation networks; ii) for predicting future scientific developments, it improves hit@1 metric by nearly 10%; and iii) when combined with other methods, it boosts the performance of evaluating important scientific papers by almost 100%.

Knowledge graphs (KGs) have been successfully applied to the analysis of complex scientific and technological domains, with automatic KG generation methods typically building upon relation extraction models capturing fine-grained relations between domain entities in text. While these relations are fully applicable across scientific areas, existing models are trained on few domain-specific datasets such as SciERC and do not perform well on new target domains. In this paper, we experiment with leveraging in-context learning capabilities of Large Language Models to perform schema-constrained data annotation, collecting in-domain training instances for a Transformer-based relation extraction model deployed on titles and abstracts of research papers in the Architecture, Construction, Engineering and Operations (AECO) domain. By assessing the performance gain with respect to a baseline Deep Learning architecture trained on off-domain data, we show that by using a few-shot learning strategy with structured prompts and only minimal expert annotation the presented approach can potentially support domain adaptation of a science KG generation model.

Laboratory workflows in pharmaceutical and biomedical research encode substantial tacit knowledge -- expert judgment about failure conditions, decision branching logic, and contextual dependencies -- that remains inaccessible to protocol documents, sensor streams, and existing biomedical ontologies. We present a repeatable structured expert elicitation methodology and federated Semantic Knowledge Graph (SKG) architecture for capturing and querying this knowledge, demonstrated through deployment at the Biochemical and Cellular Pharmacology Department of Genentech. Knowledge is elicited via the Protocol Intelligence Co-pilot, a purpose-built AI interview agent that applies structured elicitation lenses to surface tacit procedural knowledge with expert-assigned confidence scores, producing graph representations across three tiers: program-level decision milestones, assay protocol knowledge, and physical execution infrastructure. Separately constructed subgraphs, exemplified by immunoassay (ELISA), quantitative mass spectrometry (LC-MS/PRM), and laboratory automation, are aligned through a shared upper ontology and queried as a single federated graph. Evaluation demonstrates seven query types structurally unavailable from any individual data source, including a cross-subgraph traversal that identifies automation-masked silent failures -- conditions where execution logs report success while scientific validity is compromised. Critically, the MASKED_BY graph relationship encodes a class of laboratory risk invisible to current informatics platforms -- the structural gap that prevents existing systems from reasoning about scientific validity. This architecture provides the semantic world model that AI laboratory agents currently lack: a queryable representation of where workflows fail silently, where human judgment is irreplaceable, and which execution assets mask rather than detect failure.

Recent advances in deep learning and large language models (LLMs) have facilitated the deployment of the mixture-of-experts (MoE) mechanism in the stock investment domain. While these models have demonstrated promising trading performance, they are often unimodal, neglecting the wealth of information available in other modalities, such as textual data. Moreover, the traditional neural network-based router selection mechanism fails to consider contextual and real-world nuances, resulting in suboptimal expert selection. To address these limitations, we propose LLMoE, a novel framework that employs LLMs as the router within the MoE architecture. Specifically, we replace the conventional neural network-based router with LLMs, leveraging their extensive world knowledge and reasoning capabilities to select experts based on historical price data and stock news. This approach provides a more effective and interpretable selection mechanism. Our experiments on multimodal real-world stock datasets demonstrate that LLMoE outperforms state-of-the-art MoE models and other deep neural network approaches. Additionally, the flexible architecture of LLMoE allows for easy adaptation to various downstream tasks.

Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) architectures have emerged as a powerful paradigm for scaling neural networks while maintaining computational efficiency. However, standard MoE implementations rely on two rigid design assumptions: (1) fixed Top-K routing where exactly K experts are activated per token, and (2) uniform expert allocation across all layers. This paper introduces DynaMoE, a novel MoE framework that relaxes both constraints through dynamic token-level expert activation and layer-wise adaptive capacity allocation. DynaMoE introduces a principled routing mechanism where the number of active experts per token varies based on input complexity. Concurrently, the framework implements six distinct scheduling strategies for distributing expert capacity across network depth, including descending, ascending, pyramid, and wave patterns. We theoretically analyze the expressivity gains of dynamic routing and derive bounds on computational efficiency. Through extensive experiments on MNIST, Fashion-MNIST, CIFAR-10 (image classification), and Recycling-the-Web (language modeling) across multiple model scales, we demonstrate that DynaMoE achieves superior parameter efficiency compared to static baselines. Our key finding is that optimal expert schedules are task- and scale-dependent: descending schedules (concentrating capacity in early layers) outperform uniform baselines on image classification. For language modeling, optimal schedules vary by model size, descending for Tiny, ascending for Small, and uniform for Medium. Furthermore, dynamic routing reduces gradient variance during training, leading to improved convergence stability. DynaMoE establishes a new framework for adaptive computation in neural networks, providing principled guidance for MoE architecture design.

This paper introduces MedTrinity-25M, a comprehensive, large-scale multimodal dataset for medicine, covering over 25 million images across 10 modalities, with multigranular annotations for more than 65 diseases. These enriched annotations encompass both global textual information, such as disease/lesion type, modality, region-specific descriptions, and inter-regional relationships, as well as detailed local annotations for regions of interest (ROIs), including bounding boxes, segmentation masks. Unlike existing approach which is limited by the availability of image-text pairs, we have developed the first automated pipeline that scales up multimodal data by generating multigranular visual and texual annotations (in the form of image-ROI-description triplets) without the need for any paired text descriptions. Specifically, data from over 90 different sources have been collected, preprocessed, and grounded using domain-specific expert models to identify ROIs related to abnormal regions. We then build a comprehensive knowledge base and prompt multimodal large language models to perform retrieval-augmented generation with the identified ROIs as guidance, resulting in multigranular texual descriptions. Compared to existing datasets, MedTrinity-25M provides the most enriched annotations, supporting a comprehensive range of multimodal tasks such as captioning and report generation, as well as vision-centric tasks like classification and segmentation. Pretraining on MedTrinity-25M, our model achieves state-of-the-art performance on VQA-RAD and PathVQA, surpassing both multimodal large language models and other representative SoTA approaches. This dataset can also be utilized to support large-scale pre-training of multimodal medical AI models, contributing to the development of future foundation models in the medical domain.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have achieved impressive results in various tasks but struggle with hallucination problems and lack of relevant knowledge, especially in deep complex reasoning and knowledge-intensive tasks. Knowledge Graphs (KGs), which capture vast amounts of facts in a structured format, offer a reliable source of knowledge for reasoning. However, existing KG-based LLM reasoning methods face challenges like handling multi-hop reasoning, multi-entity questions, and effectively utilizing graph structures. To address these issues, we propose Paths-over-Graph (PoG), a novel method that enhances LLM reasoning by integrating knowledge reasoning paths from KGs, improving the interpretability and faithfulness of LLM outputs. PoG tackles multi-hop and multi-entity questions through a three-phase dynamic multi-hop path exploration, which combines the inherent knowledge of LLMs with factual knowledge from KGs. In order to improve the efficiency, PoG prunes irrelevant information from the graph exploration first and introduces efficient three-step pruning techniques that incorporate graph structures, LLM prompting, and a pre-trained language model (e.g., SBERT) to effectively narrow down the explored candidate paths. This ensures all reasoning paths contain highly relevant information captured from KGs, making the reasoning faithful and interpretable in problem-solving. PoG innovatively utilizes graph structure to prune the irrelevant noise and represents the first method to implement multi-entity deep path detection on KGs for LLM reasoning tasks. Comprehensive experiments on five benchmark KGQA datasets demonstrate PoG outperforms the state-of-the-art method ToG across GPT-3.5-Turbo and GPT-4, achieving an average accuracy improvement of 18.9%. Notably, PoG with GPT-3.5-Turbo surpasses ToG with GPT-4 by up to 23.9%.

The Mixtures-of-Experts (MoE) model is a widespread distributed and integrated learning method for large language models (LLM), which is favored due to its ability to sparsify and expand models efficiently. However, the performance of MoE is limited by load imbalance and high latency of All-To-All communication, along with relatively redundant computation owing to large expert capacity. Load imbalance may result from existing routing policies that consistently tend to select certain experts. The frequent inter-node communication in the All-To-All procedure also significantly prolongs the training time. To alleviate the above performance problems, we propose a novel routing strategy that combines load balance and locality by converting partial inter-node communication to that of intra-node. Notably, we elucidate that there is a minimum threshold for expert capacity, calculated through the maximal angular deviation between the gating weights of the experts and the assigned tokens. We port these modifications on the PanGu-Sigma model based on the MindSpore framework with multi-level routing and conduct experiments on Ascend clusters. The experiment results demonstrate that the proposed LocMoE reduces training time per epoch by 12.68% to 22.24% compared to classical routers, such as hash router and switch router, without impacting the model accuracy.

Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) models are typically pre-trained with explicit load-balancing constraints to ensure statistically balanced expert routing. Despite this, we observe that even well-trained MoE models exhibit significantly imbalanced routing. This behavior is arguably natural-and even desirable - as imbalanced routing allows models to concentrate domain-specific knowledge within a subset of experts. Expert parallelism (EP) is designed to scale MoE models by distributing experts across multiple devices, but with a less-discussed assumption of balanced routing. Under extreme imbalance, EP can funnel a disproportionate number of tokens to a small number of experts, leading to compute- and memory-bound failures on overloaded devices during post-training or inference, where explicit load balancing is often inapplicable. We propose Least-Loaded Expert Parallelism (LLEP), a novel EP algorithm that dynamically reroutes excess tokens and associated expert parameters from overloaded devices to underutilized ones. This ensures that all devices complete their workloads within the minimum collective latency while respecting memory constraints. Across different model scales, LLEP achieves up to 5x speedup and 4x reduction in peak memory usage compared to standard EP. This enables faster and higher-throughput post-training and inference, with ~1.9x faster for gpt-oss-120b. We support our method with extensive theoretical analysis and comprehensive empirical evaluations, including ablation studies. These results illuminate key trade-offs and enable a principled framework for hardware-specific hyper-parameter tuning to achieve optimal performance.

Biomedical knowledge graphs (BioMedKGs) are essential infrastructures for biomedical and healthcare big data and artificial intelligence (AI), facilitating natural language processing, model development, and data exchange. For decades, these knowledge graphs have been developed via expert curation; however, this method can no longer keep up with today's AI development, and a transition to algorithmically generated BioMedKGs is necessary. In this work, we introduce the Biomedical Informatics Ontology System (BIOS), the first large-scale publicly available BioMedKG generated completely by machine learning algorithms. BIOS currently contains 4.1 million concepts, 7.4 million terms in two languages, and 7.3 million relation triplets. We present the methodology for developing BIOS, including the curation of raw biomedical terms, computational identification of synonymous terms and aggregation of these terms to create concept nodes, semantic type classification of the concepts, relation identification, and biomedical machine translation. We provide statistics on the current BIOS content and perform preliminary assessments of term quality, synonym grouping, and relation extraction. The results suggest that machine learning-based BioMedKG development is a viable alternative to traditional expert curation.

NLP benchmarks rely on standardized datasets for training and evaluating models and are crucial for advancing the field. Traditionally, expert annotations ensure high-quality labels; however, the cost of expert annotation does not scale well with the growing demand for larger datasets required by modern models. While crowd-sourcing provides a more scalable solution, it often comes at the expense of annotation precision and consistency. Recent advancements in large language models (LLMs) offer new opportunities to enhance the annotation process, particularly for detecting label errors in existing datasets. In this work, we consider the recent approach of LLM-as-a-judge, leveraging an ensemble of LLMs to flag potentially mislabeled examples. Through a case study of four datasets from the TRUE benchmark, covering different tasks and domains, we empirically analyze the labeling quality of existing datasets, and compare expert, crowd-sourced, and our LLM-based annotations in terms of agreement, label quality, and efficiency, demonstrating the strengths and limitations of each annotation method. Our findings reveal a substantial number of label errors, which, when corrected, induce a significant upward shift in reported model performance. This suggests that many of the LLMs so-called mistakes are due to label errors rather than genuine model failures. Additionally, we discuss the implications of mislabeled data and propose methods to mitigate them in training to improve model performance.

Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) models achieve a favorable trade-off between performance and inference efficiency by activating only a subset of experts. However, the memory overhead of storing all experts remains a major limitation, especially in large-scale MoE models such as DeepSeek-R1(671B). In this study, we investigate domain specialization and expert redundancy in large-scale MoE models and uncover a consistent behavior we term few-shot expert localization, with only a few in-domain demonstrations, the model consistently activates a sparse and stable subset of experts on tasks within the same domain. Building on this observation, we propose a simple yet effective pruning framework, EASY-EP, that leverages a few domain-specific demonstrations to identify and retain only the most relevant experts. EASY-EP comprises two key components: output-aware expert importance assessment and expert-level token contribution estimation. The former evaluates the importance of each expert for the current token by considering the gating scores and L2 norm of the outputs of activated experts, while the latter assesses the contribution of tokens based on representation similarities before and after routed experts. Experiments on DeepSeek-R1 and DeepSeek-V3-0324 show that our method can achieve comparable performances and 2.99times throughput under the same memory budget with full model with only half the experts.

Existing scientific relation extraction benchmarks mainly target domains such as computer science, where entities are tasks, methods, datasets, materials, or metrics. This leaves a gap in variable-oriented empirical fields such as psychology, where findings are expressed as relations among constructs, measurements, interventions, and outcomes. We introduce variable-centered empirical graph extraction, the task of mapping scientific abstracts to typed graphs whose nodes are normalized variables and whose edges represent empirical and hierarchical relations. To support this task, we construct EmpiriGraph-Psy, a benchmark of 210 psychology abstracts annotated by domain-trained annotators with normalized variables, concept hierarchies, empirical relation types, and validation states. We evaluate frontier and open-weight LLMs using both direct extraction and a staged graph-construction pipeline that separates variable extraction, normalization, hierarchy construction, evidence selection, relation extraction, and edge validation. The staged pipeline substantially outperforms direct extraction, with the best configuration achieving a macro-F1 of 0.74. Error analysis shows that moderation relations and concept hierarchies remain the most challenging cases, highlighting the difficulty of extracting higher-order empirical claims and implicit abstraction structure from scientific abstracts.

Large reasoning models (LRMs) produce reasoning traces with non-linear structures, such as backtracking and self-correction, that complicate the evaluation and monitoring of the reasoning process. We introduce ReasoningFlow, a framework that captures the discourse structures of LRM reasoning traces into fine-grained directed acyclic graphs (DAGs). We develop and validate our annotation schema through careful manual annotation of 31 traces (2.1k steps), achieving high inter-annotator agreement, then scale to automatic annotation of 1,260 traces (247.7k steps) spanning three tasks (math, science, argumentation) and five models (Qwen2.5-32B-Inst, QwQ-32B, DeepSeek-V3, DeepSeek-R1, GPT-oss-120B). By analyzing ReasoningFlow graphs, we find: (1) LRMs exhibit structurally similar traces, despite being trained from different base models and potentially non-overlapping post-training data. (2) ReasoningFlow reveals diverse fine-grained reasoning behaviors (e.g., local verification, self-reflection, and assumptions) that can be used for better reasoning trace monitorability. (3) In LRMs, most of the erroneous steps are not used to derive final answers. (4) Mechanistic causal dependencies between steps do not reflect the language-level discourse structure. We release the dataset and code in: https://github.com/jinulee-v/reasoningflow.

Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) models lack explicit constraints to ensure the router's decisions align well with the experts' capabilities, which ultimately limits model performance. To address this, we propose expert-router coupling (ERC) loss, a lightweight auxiliary loss that tightly couples the router's decisions with expert capabilities. Our approach treats each expert's router embedding as a proxy token for the tokens assigned to that expert, and feeds perturbed router embeddings through the experts to obtain internal activations. The ERC loss enforces two constraints on these activations: (1) Each expert must exhibit higher activation for its own proxy token than for the proxy tokens of any other expert. (2) Each proxy token must elicit stronger activation from its corresponding expert than from any other expert. These constraints jointly ensure that each router embedding faithfully represents its corresponding expert's capability, while each expert specializes in processing the tokens actually routed to it. The ERC loss is computationally efficient, operating only on n^2 activations, where n is the number of experts. This represents a fixed cost independent of batch size, unlike prior coupling methods that scale with the number of tokens (often millions per batch). Through pre-training MoE-LLMs ranging from 3B to 15B parameters and extensive analysis on trillions of tokens, we demonstrate the effectiveness of the ERC loss. Moreover, the ERC loss offers flexible control and quantitative tracking of expert specialization levels during training, providing valuable insights into MoEs.

Deploying Large Language Models (LLMs) for regulatory compliance demands rigorous traceability via comprehensive citations across multi-tiered authority structures. Unlike traditional multi-hop or legal QA, this task requires structured procedural lookups and evidence-set closure rather than entity resolution or case-law reasoning. Existing RAG systems struggle here due to flattened citation edges, fragmented retrieval expansions, and fragile post-hoc attribution. We formalize Regulatory Compliance QA with RegOps-Bench, a novel benchmark featuring an Operational Knowledge Graph derived from complex national R\&D regulations. To address these bottlenecks, we propose RefWalk, a unified framework driven by a shared topic anchor. RefWalk traverses cross-document citations, fuses multi-view candidates via max-based aggregation, and enforces per-rule attribution to explicitly map claims to sources. We establish a strong baseline with substantial improvements in retrieval recall and citation accuracy. Finally, a contrastive evaluation on a U.S. health compliance dataset (HIPAA) reveals that existing systems exhibit saturation on flat-structure rules, underscoring the need for RegOps-Bench. Our code is available at https://github.com/yeongjoonJu/RefWalk.

Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) architectures have emerged as a leading paradigm for scaling large language models through sparse, routing-based computation. However, this design introduces a new attack surface: the routing mechanism that determines which experts process each input. Prior work shows that manipulating routing can bypass safety alignment, but existing attacks require model modification and thus apply only to locally deployed models. By contrast, real-world LLM services are remotely hosted and accessible only through input queries. This raises a fundamental question: can MoE routing be exploited through input-only attacks to induce stronger unsafe behaviors in real-world services? Our key insight is to optimize attacks in a white-box setting on open-source surrogate MoE models and transfer the resulting adversarial inputs to public API services within the same model family. This setting presents three main challenges: routing can be influenced only indirectly through input perturbations, routing control and output generation are tightly coupled, and even a successful safety bypass may still produce low-quality responses. To address these challenges, we propose Misrouter, an input-only attack framework that jointly targets routing behavior and expert functionality. Misrouter identifies weakly aligned experts that are willing to produce target harmful content by analyzing expert activations under harmful queries paired with unsafe continuations. It then optimizes adversarial inputs to steer routing toward these experts and away from strongly aligned ones. It further biases routing toward highly capable general-purpose experts identified from benign question-answering tasks. Finally, because routing and output objectives can conflict, Misrouter uses a two-phase optimization strategy that first steers routing and then optimizes harmful outputs while preserving routing stability.

Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS) has been widely used for automated reasoning data exploration, but current supervision extraction methods remain inefficient. Standard approaches retain only the single highest-reward trajectory, discarding the comparative signals present in the many explored paths. Here we introduce Contrastive Reasoning Path Synthesis (CRPS), a framework that transforms supervision extraction from a filtering process into a synthesis procedure. CRPS uses a structured reflective process to analyze the differences between high- and low-quality search trajectories, extracting explicit information about strategic pivots and local failure modes. These insights guide the synthesis of reasoning chains that incorporate success patterns while avoiding identified pitfalls. We show empirically that models fine-tuned on just 60K CRPS-synthesized examples match or exceed the performance of baselines trained on 590K examples derived from standard rejection sampling, a 20times reduction in dataset size. Furthermore, CRPS improves generalization on out-of-domain benchmarks, demonstrating that learning from the contrast between success and failure produces more transferable reasoning capabilities than learning from success alone.

Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) model architecture has emerged as a promising solution for scaling transformer models efficiently, offering sparse activation that reduces computational costs while increasing model capacity. However, as MoE models scale, they need to be distributed across GPU devices, thus face critical performance bottlenecks due to their large memory footprint. Expert parallelism distributes experts across GPUs, however, faces key challenges including an unbalanced token routing and expert activation, resulting in communication tail latency and processing inefficiencies. While existing solutions address some of these issues, they fail to resolve the dual challenges of load imbalance and communication skew. The imbalance in token processing load across experts causes uneven processing times on different GPUs, while communication skew between GPUs leads to unbalanced inter-GPU data transfers. These factors degrade the performance of MoE models by increasing tail latency and reducing overall throughput. To address these limitations, we propose an Integer Linear Programming (ILP) formulation to optimize expert placement by jointly considering token load, communication, and computation costs. We exploit the property that there is a token routing dependency across layers, where tokens routed to a specific expert in one layer are likely to be routed to a limited set of experts in the subsequent layer. Our solution, MoETuner, offers an optimal expert-to-GPU assignment that minimizes inter-GPU token routing costs and balances token processing across devices, thereby reducing tail latency and end-to-end execution time. Experimental results demonstrate 9.3% and 17.5% of end-to-end speedups for single-node and multi-node inference respectively, showcasing the potential of our ILP-based optimization for offering expert parallel solutions for next-generation MoEs.

Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) models have become a leading approach for decoupling parameter count from computational cost in large language models, yet effectively scaling MoE performance remains a challenge. Prior work shows that fine-grained experts enlarge the space of expert combinations and improve flexibility, but they also impose substantial routing overhead, creating a new scalability bottleneck. In this paper, we explore a complementary axis for scaling -- how expert outputs are aggregated. We theoretically show that replacing the standard weighted-summation aggregation with structural aggregation expands the expert-combination space without altering the experts or router, and enables possible multi-step reasoning within a single MoE layer. To this end, we propose DAG-MoE, a sparse MoE framework that employs a lightweight module to automatically learn the optimal aggregation structure among the selected experts. Extensive experiments under standard language modeling settings show that DAG-MoE consistently improves performance in both pretraining and fine-tuning, surpassing traditional MoE baselines.

As Large Language Models (LLMs) exhibit plateauing performance on conventional benchmarks, a pivotal challenge persists: evaluating their proficiency in complex, open-ended tasks characterizing genuine expert-level cognition. Existing frameworks suffer from narrow domain coverage, reliance on generalist tasks, or self-evaluation biases. To bridge this gap, we present XpertBench, a high-fidelity benchmark engineered to assess LLMs across authentic professional domains. XpertBench consists of 1,346 meticulously curated tasks across 80 categories, spanning finance, healthcare, legal services, education, and dual-track research (STEM and Humanities). These tasks are derived from over 1,000 submissions by domain experts--including researchers from elite institutions and practitioners with extensive clinical or industrial experience--ensuring superior ecological validity. Each task uses detailed rubrics with mostly 15-40 weighted checkpoints to assess professional rigor. To facilitate scalable yet human-aligned assessment, we introduce ShotJudge, a novel evaluation paradigm that employs LLM judges calibrated with expert few-shot exemplars to mitigate self-rewarding biases. Our empirical evaluation of state-of-the-art LLMs reveals a pronounced performance ceiling: even leading models achieve a peak success rate of only ~66%, with a mean score around 55%. Models also exhibit domain-specific divergence, showing non-overlapping strengths in quantitative reasoning versus linguistic synthesis.. These findings underscore a significant "expert-gap" in current AI systems and establish XpertBench as a critical instrument for navigating the transition from general-purpose assistants to specialized professional collaborators.

Identifying effective interventions from the scientific literature is challenging due to the high volume of publications, specialized terminology, and inconsistent reporting formats, making manual curation laborious and prone to oversight. To address this challenge, this paper proposes a novel framework leveraging large language models (LLMs), which integrates a progressive ontology prompting (POP) algorithm with a dual-agent system, named LLM-Duo. On the one hand, the POP algorithm conducts a prioritized breadth-first search (BFS) across a predefined ontology, generating structured prompt templates and action sequences to guide the automatic annotation process. On the other hand, the LLM-Duo system features two specialized LLM agents, an explorer and an evaluator, working collaboratively and adversarially to continuously refine annotation quality. We showcase the real-world applicability of our framework through a case study focused on speech-language intervention discovery. Experimental results show that our approach surpasses advanced baselines, achieving more accurate and comprehensive annotations through a fully automated process. Our approach successfully identified 2,421 interventions from a corpus of 64,177 research articles in the speech-language pathology domain, culminating in the creation of a publicly accessible intervention knowledge base with great potential to benefit the speech-language pathology community.

Recent advancements in large language models (LLMs) have substantially enhanced their mathematical reasoning abilities. However, these models still struggle with complex problems that require multiple reasoning steps, frequently leading to logical or numerical errors. While numerical mistakes can be largely addressed by integrating a code interpreter, identifying logical errors within intermediate steps is more challenging. Moreover, manually annotating these steps for training is not only expensive but also labor-intensive, requiring the expertise of professional annotators. In our study, we introduce an innovative approach that bypasses the need for process annotations (from human or GPTs) by utilizing the Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS) framework. This technique automatically generates both the process supervision and the step-level evaluation signals. Our method iteratively trains the policy and value models, leveraging the capabilities of a well-pretrained LLM to progressively enhance its mathematical reasoning skills. Furthermore, we propose an efficient inference strategy-step-level beam search, where the value model is crafted to assist the policy model (i.e., LLM) in navigating more effective reasoning paths, rather than solely relying on prior probabilities. The experimental results on both in-domain and out-of-domain datasets demonstrate that even without GPT-4 or human-annotated process supervision, our AlphaMath framework achieves comparable or superior results to previous state-of-the-art methods.

In recent years, there have been remarkable advancements in node classification achieved by Graph Neural Networks (GNNs). However, they necessitate abundant high-quality labels to ensure promising performance. In contrast, Large Language Models (LLMs) exhibit impressive zero-shot proficiency on text-attributed graphs. Yet, they face challenges in efficiently processing structural data and suffer from high inference costs. In light of these observations, this work introduces a label-free node classification on graphs with LLMs pipeline, LLM-GNN. It amalgamates the strengths of both GNNs and LLMs while mitigating their limitations. Specifically, LLMs are leveraged to annotate a small portion of nodes and then GNNs are trained on LLMs' annotations to make predictions for the remaining large portion of nodes. The implementation of LLM-GNN faces a unique challenge: how can we actively select nodes for LLMs to annotate and consequently enhance the GNN training? How can we leverage LLMs to obtain annotations of high quality, representativeness, and diversity, thereby enhancing GNN performance with less cost? To tackle this challenge, we develop an annotation quality heuristic and leverage the confidence scores derived from LLMs to advanced node selection. Comprehensive experimental results validate the effectiveness of LLM-GNN. In particular, LLM-GNN can achieve an accuracy of 74.9% on a vast-scale dataset \products with a cost less than 1 dollar.

Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) has emerged as an effective approach to reduce the computational overhead of Transformer architectures by sparsely activating a subset of parameters for each token while preserving high model capacity. This paradigm has recently been extended to Vision-Language Models (VLMs), enabling scalable multi-modal understanding with reduced computational cost. However, the widely adopted deterministic top-K routing mechanism may overlook more optimal expert combinations and lead to expert overfitting. To address this limitation and improve the diversity of expert selection, we propose MoE-GRPO, a reinforcement learning (RL)-based framework for optimizing expert routing in MoE-based VLMs. Specifically, we formulate expert selection as a sequential decision-making problem and optimize it using Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO), allowing the model to learn adaptive expert routing policies through exploration and reward-based feedback. Furthermore, we introduce a modality-aware router guidance that enhances training stability and efficiency by discouraging the router from exploring experts that are infrequently activated for a given modality. Extensive experiments on multi-modal image and video benchmarks show that MoE-GRPO consistently outperforms standard top-K routing and its variants by promoting more diverse expert selection, thereby mitigating expert overfitting and enabling a task-level expert specialization.

Effective scientific communication depends on accurate citations that validate sources and guide readers to supporting evidence. Yet academic literature faces mounting challenges: semantic citation errors that misrepresent sources, AI-generated hallucinated references, and traditional citation formats that point to entire papers without indicating which sections substantiate specific claims. We introduce SemanticCite, an AI-powered system that verifies citation accuracy through full-text source analysis while providing rich contextual information via detailed reasoning and relevant text snippets. Our approach combines multiple retrieval methods with a four-class classification system (Supported, Partially Supported, Unsupported, Uncertain) that captures nuanced claim-source relationships and enables appropriate remedial actions for different error types. Our experiments show that fine-tuned lightweight language models achieve performance comparable to large commercial systems with significantly lower computational requirements, making large-scale citation verification practically feasible. The system provides transparent, evidence-based explanations that support user understanding and trust. We contribute a comprehensive dataset of over 1,000 citations with detailed alignments, functional classifications, semantic annotations, and bibliometric metadata across eight disciplines, alongside fine-tuned models and the complete verification framework as open-source software. SemanticCite addresses critical challenges in research integrity through scalable citation verification, streamlined peer review, and quality control for AI-generated content, providing an open-source foundation for maintaining citation accuracy at scale.

Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) architectures have emerged as a promising approach to scale Large Language Models (LLMs). MoE boosts the efficiency by activating a subset of experts per token. Recent works show that fine-grained experts substantially enriches the combinatorial flexibility of active experts and enhances model expressiveness. However, such a design is fundamentally limited by the layer-local routing mechanism: each layer is restricted to its own expert pool. This requires a careful trade-off between expert dimensionality and routing diversity given fixed parameter budgets. We describe ReXMoE, a novel MoE architecture that improves routing beyond the existing layer-local approaches by allowing routers to reuse experts across adjacent layers. ReXMoE decouples expert dimensionality from per-layer budgets, enabling richer expert combinations without sacrificing individual expert capacity or inflating overall parameters. To this end, we propose a new progressive scaling routing (PSR) strategy to gradually increase the candidate expert pool during training. As a result, ReXMoE improves both language modeling and downstream task performance. Extensive experiments on models ranging from 0.5B to 7B parameters across different architectures demonstrate that ReXMoE consistently improves performance under fixed architectural dimensions, confirming ReXMoE as new design paradigm for parameter-efficient and scalable MoE-based LLMs.

Upcycling pre-trained dense language models into sparse mixture-of-experts (MoE) models is an efficient approach to increase the model capacity of already trained models. However, optimal techniques for upcycling at scale remain unclear. In this work, we conduct an extensive study of upcycling methods and hyperparameters for billion-parameter scale language models. We propose a novel "virtual group" initialization scheme and weight scaling approach to enable upcycling into fine-grained MoE architectures. Through ablations, we find that upcycling outperforms continued dense model training. In addition, we show that softmax-then-topK expert routing improves over topK-then-softmax approach and higher granularity MoEs can help improve accuracy. Finally, we upcycled Nemotron-4 15B on 1T tokens and compared it to a continuously trained version of the same model on the same 1T tokens: the continuous trained model achieved 65.3% MMLU, whereas the upcycled model achieved 67.6%. Our results offer insights and best practices to effectively leverage upcycling for building MoE language models.

Clinical trials are crucial for drug development but are time consuming, expensive, and often burdensome on patients. More importantly, clinical trials face uncertain outcomes due to issues with efficacy, safety, or problems with patient recruitment. If we were better at predicting the results of clinical trials, we could avoid having to run trials that will inevitably fail more resources could be devoted to trials that are likely to succeed. In this paper, we propose Hierarchical INteraction Network (HINT) for more general, clinical trial outcome predictions for all diseases based on a comprehensive and diverse set of web data including molecule information of the drugs, target disease information, trial protocol and biomedical knowledge. HINT first encode these multi-modal data into latent embeddings, where an imputation module is designed to handle missing data. Next, these embeddings will be fed into the knowledge embedding module to generate knowledge embeddings that are pretrained using external knowledge on pharmaco-kinetic properties and trial risk from the web. Then the interaction graph module will connect all the embedding via domain knowledge to fully capture various trial components and their complex relations as well as their influences on trial outcomes. Finally, HINT learns a dynamic attentive graph neural network to predict trial outcome. Comprehensive experimental results show that HINT achieves strong predictive performance, obtaining 0.772, 0.607, 0.623, 0.703 on PR-AUC for Phase I, II, III, and indication outcome prediction, respectively. It also consistently outperforms the best baseline method by up to 12.4\% on PR-AUC.

Solving complex classification tasks using deep neural networks typically requires large amounts of annotated data. However, corresponding class labels are noisy when provided by error-prone annotators, e.g., crowd workers. Training standard deep neural networks leads to subpar performances in such multi-annotator supervised learning settings. We address this issue by presenting a probabilistic training framework named multi-annotator deep learning (MaDL). A ground truth and an annotator performance model are jointly trained in an end-to-end learning approach. The ground truth model learns to predict instances' true class labels, while the annotator performance model infers probabilistic estimates of annotators' performances. A modular network architecture enables us to make varying assumptions regarding annotators' performances, e.g., an optional class or instance dependency. Further, we learn annotator embeddings to estimate annotators' densities within a latent space as proxies of their potentially correlated annotations. Together with a weighted loss function, we improve the learning from correlated annotation patterns. In a comprehensive evaluation, we examine three research questions about multi-annotator supervised learning. Our findings indicate MaDL's state-of-the-art performance and robustness against many correlated, spamming annotators.

Interactive image segmentation enables annotators to efficiently perform pixel-level annotation for segmentation tasks. However, the existing interactive segmentation pipeline suffers from inefficient computations of interactive models because of the following two issues. First, annotators' later click is based on models' feedback of annotators' former click. This serial interaction is unable to utilize model's parallelism capabilities. Second, in each interaction step, the model handles the invariant image along with the sparse variable clicks, resulting in a process that's highly repetitive and redundant. For efficient computations, we propose a method named InterFormer that follows a new pipeline to address these issues. InterFormer extracts and preprocesses the computationally time-consuming part i.e. image processing from the existing process. Specifically, InterFormer employs a large vision transformer (ViT) on high-performance devices to preprocess images in parallel, and then uses a lightweight module called interactive multi-head self attention (I-MSA) for interactive segmentation. Furthermore, the I-MSA module's deployment on low-power devices extends the practical application of interactive segmentation. The I-MSA module utilizes the preprocessed features to efficiently response to the annotator inputs in real-time. The experiments on several datasets demonstrate the effectiveness of InterFormer, which outperforms previous interactive segmentation models in terms of computational efficiency and segmentation quality, achieve real-time high-quality interactive segmentation on CPU-only devices. The code is available at https://github.com/YouHuang67/InterFormer.

Diffusion language models (DLMs) enable parallel, non-autoregressive text generation, yet existing DLM mixture-of-experts (MoE) models inherit token-choice (TC) routing from autoregressive systems, leading to load imbalance and rigid computation allocation. We show that expert-choice (EC) routing is a better fit for DLMs: it provides deterministic load balancing by design, yielding higher throughput and faster convergence than TC. Building on the property that EC capacity is externally controllable, we introduce timestep-dependent expert capacity, which varies expert allocation according to the denoising step. We find that allocating more capacity to low-mask-ratio steps consistently achieves the best performance under matched FLOPs, and provide a mechanistic explanation: tokens in low-mask-ratio contexts exhibit an order-of-magnitude higher learning efficiency, so concentrating compute on these steps yields the largest marginal return. Finally, we show that existing pretrained TC DLMs can be retrofitted to EC by replacing only the router, achieving faster convergence and improved accuracy across diverse downstream tasks. Together, these results establish EC routing as a superior paradigm for DLM MoE models and demonstrate that computation in DLMs can be treated as an adaptive policy rather than a fixed architectural constant. Code is available at https://github.com/zhangshuibai/EC-DLM.

In many applications involving intelligent agents, the overwhelming volume of alerts (mostly false) generated by the agents may desensitize users and cause them to overlook critical issues, leading to the so-called ''alert fatigue''. A common strategy is to train a reflection model as a filter to intercept false alerts with labelled data collected from user verification feedback. However, a key challenge is the noisy nature of such data as it is often collected in production environments. As cleaning noise via manual annotation incurs high costs, this paper proposes a novel method ConceptRM for constructing a high-quality corpus to train a reflection model capable of effectively intercepting false alerts. With only a small amount of expert annotations as anchors, ConceptRM creates perturbed datasets with varying noise ratios and utilizes co-teaching to train multiple distinct models for collaborative learning. By analyzing the consensus decisions of these models, it effectively identifies reliable negative samples from a noisy dataset. Experimental results demonstrate that ConceptRM significantly enhances the interception of false alerts with minimal annotation cost, outperforming several state-of-the-art LLM baselines by up to 53.31% on in-domain datasets and 41.67% on out-of-domain datasets.

While AI innovation accelerates rapidly, the intellectual process behind breakthroughs -- how researchers identify gaps, synthesize prior work, and generate insights -- remains poorly understood. The lack of structured data on scientific reasoning hinders systematic analysis and development of AI research agents. We introduce Sci-Reasoning, the first dataset capturing the intellectual synthesis behind high-quality AI research. Using community-validated quality signals and an LLM-accelerated, human-verified pipeline, we trace Oral and Spotlight papers across NeurIPS, ICML, and ICLR (2023-2025) to its key predecessors, articulating specific reasoning links in a structured format. Our analysis identifies 15 distinct thinking patterns, with three dominant strategies accounting for 52.7%: Gap-Driven Reframing (24.2%), Cross-Domain Synthesis (18.0%), and Representation Shift (10.5%). The most powerful innovation recipes combine multiple patterns: Gap-Driven Reframing + Representation Shift, Cross-Domain Synthesis + Representation Shift, and Gap-Driven Reframing + Cross-Domain Synthesis. This dataset enables quantitative studies of scientific progress and provides structured reasoning trajectories for training the next generation AI research agents.

Accurate career path prediction can support many stakeholders, like job seekers, recruiters, HR, and project managers. However, publicly available data and tools for career path prediction are scarce. In this work, we introduce KARRIEREWEGE, a comprehensive, publicly available dataset containing over 500k career paths, significantly surpassing the size of previously available datasets. We link the dataset to the ESCO taxonomy to offer a valuable resource for predicting career trajectories. To tackle the problem of free-text inputs typically found in resumes, we enhance it by synthesizing job titles and descriptions resulting in KARRIEREWEGE+. This allows for accurate predictions from unstructured data, closely aligning with real-world application challenges. We benchmark existing state-of-the-art (SOTA) models on our dataset and a prior benchmark and observe improved performance and robustness, particularly for free-text use cases, due to the synthesized data.

In semantic segmentation, the accuracy of models heavily depends on the high-quality annotations. However, in many practical scenarios such as medical imaging and remote sensing, obtaining true annotations is not straightforward and usually requires significant human labor. Relying on human labor often introduces annotation errors, including mislabeling, omissions, and inconsistency between annotators. In the case of remote sensing, differences in procurement time can lead to misaligned ground truth annotations. These label errors are not independently distributed, and instead usually appear in spatially connected regions where adjacent pixels are more likely to share the same errors. To address these issues, we propose an approximate Bayesian estimation based on a probabilistic model that assumes training data includes label errors, incorporating the tendency for these errors to occur with spatial correlations between adjacent pixels. Bayesian inference requires computing the posterior distribution of label errors, which becomes intractable when spatial correlations are present. We represent the correlation of label errors between adjacent pixels through a Gaussian distribution whose covariance is structured by a Kac-Murdock-Szeg\"{o} (KMS) matrix, solving the computational challenges. Through experiments on multiple segmentation tasks, we confirm that leveraging the spatial correlation of label errors significantly improves performance. Notably, in specific tasks such as lung segmentation, the proposed method achieves performance comparable to training with clean labels under moderate noise levels. Code is available at https://github.com/pfnet-research/Bayesian_SpatialCorr.

When developing new large language models (LLMs), a key step is evaluating their final performance, often by computing the win-rate against a reference model based on external feedback. Human feedback is the gold standard, particularly for capturing nuanced qualities like coherence, readability, and alignment with human expectations. However, human evaluations are costly -- even for large tech companies -- and when conducted with active users, they may negatively impact user experience. A promising alternative is synthetic feedback, where evaluations are conducted by other large language models, including reward models. While this eliminates the need for costly human annotations, it introduces biases that may distort the evaluation process. In this work, we propose a statistically principled framework that integrates human and synthetic feedback to reduce reliance on human annotations while maintaining unbiased win-rate calculations. Our experiments demonstrate a reduction in human annotations by up to 12.2% with an off-the-shelf synthetic evaluator and up to 24.8% with a finetuned variant. Apart from being generalizable, scalable, and free of hyper-parameter tuning, our method offers predictable annotation savings, which can be estimated based on data-dependent characteristics.

We introduce GDPval, a benchmark evaluating AI model capabilities on real-world economically valuable tasks. GDPval covers the majority of U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Work Activities for 44 occupations across the top 9 sectors contributing to U.S. GDP (Gross Domestic Product). Tasks are constructed from the representative work of industry professionals with an average of 14 years of experience. We find that frontier model performance on GDPval is improving roughly linearly over time, and that the current best frontier models are approaching industry experts in deliverable quality. We analyze the potential for frontier models, when paired with human oversight, to perform GDPval tasks cheaper and faster than unaided experts. We also demonstrate that increased reasoning effort, increased task context, and increased scaffolding improves model performance on GDPval. Finally, we open-source a gold subset of 220 tasks and provide a public automated grading service at evals.openai.com to facilitate future research in understanding real-world model capabilities.

Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) models achieve efficient scaling through sparse expert activation, but often suffer from suboptimal routing decisions due to distribution shifts in deployment. While existing test-time adaptation methods could potentially address these issues, they primarily focus on dense models and require access to external data, limiting their practical applicability to MoE architectures. However, we find that, instead of relying on reference data, we can optimize MoE expert selection on-the-fly based only on input context. As such, we propose a data-free, online test-time framework that continuously adapts MoE routing decisions during text generation without external supervision or data. Our method cycles between two phases: During the prefill stage, and later in regular intervals, we optimize the routing decisions of the model using self-supervision based on the already generated sequence. Then, we generate text as normal, maintaining the modified router until the next adaption. We implement this through lightweight additive vectors that only update router logits in selected layers, maintaining computational efficiency while preventing over-adaptation. The experimental results show consistent performance gains on challenging reasoning tasks while maintaining robustness to context shifts. For example, our method achieves a 5.5\% improvement on HumanEval with OLMoE. Furthermore, owing to its plug-and-play property, our method naturally complements existing test-time scaling techniques, e.g., achieving 6\% average gains when incorporated with self-consistency on DeepSeek-V2-Lite.

The exponential growth of scientific literature necessitates advanced tools for effective knowledge exploration. We present Knowledge Navigator, a system designed to enhance exploratory search abilities by organizing and structuring the retrieved documents from broad topical queries into a navigable, two-level hierarchy of named and descriptive scientific topics and subtopics. This structured organization provides an overall view of the research themes in a domain, while also enabling iterative search and deeper knowledge discovery within specific subtopics by allowing users to refine their focus and retrieve additional relevant documents. Knowledge Navigator combines LLM capabilities with cluster-based methods to enable an effective browsing method. We demonstrate our approach's effectiveness through automatic and manual evaluations on two novel benchmarks, CLUSTREC-COVID and SCITOC. Our code, prompts, and benchmarks are made publicly available.

Large Language Models (LLMs) typically generate outputs token by token using a fixed compute budget, leading to inefficient resource utilization. To address this shortcoming, recent advancements in mixture of expert (MoE) models, speculative decoding, and early exit strategies leverage the insight that computational demands can vary significantly based on the complexity and nature of the input. However, identifying optimal routing patterns for dynamic execution remains an open challenge, limiting the full potential of these adaptive methods. To address this need, we study adaptive computation in LLMs more systematically. We propose a novel framework that integrates smaller auxiliary modules within each Feed-Forward Network layer of the LLM. This design enables dynamic routing of tokens based on task complexity: tokens can be processed by either the small or big modules at each layer, or even bypass certain layers entirely. This allows us to introduce a novel notion of a token's difficulty, defined by its potential to benefit from additional computational resources. Importantly, by employing oracles to identify optimal patterns of adaptive computations, we gain valuable insights into the internal workings of LLMs and the routing processes in a simplified heterogeneous MoE setup. We show that trained routers operate differently from oracles and often yield suboptimal solutions. Notably, activating a large module in just one layer outperforms models that use large modules across all layers, underscoring the gap between practical implementations of routing in MoE models and theoretical optima for adaptive computation.

Router is the cornerstone component to the Mixture-of-Experts models. Serving as expert proxies, the rows of the router matrix compute their similarity to the MoE inputs to determine which subset of experts is activated. Ideally, each router row is designed to encode the expert matrix into this representative vector, such that its dot-product with token can better reflect token-expert affinity. However, there exists no design principles to enforce this condensation. In this paper, we propose to align each router row with the principal singular direction of the associated expert, as this direction provides the most expressive mathematical description of a matrix. Based on this principle, we propose a router redesign with Manifold Power Iteration (MPI). Specifically, it introduces a "Power-then-Retract" paradigm, where a power iteration step is performed on the router weights, followed by a retraction to impose a norm constraint to ensure both efficiency and stability. Theoretically, we show that MPI drives router rows to converge toward the principal singular directions of associated experts. Empirically, we pretrain MoE model across scales from 1B to 11B parameters to confirm that this alignment facilitates more effective MoE models.

Knowledge graph (KG) link prediction aims to infer new facts based on existing facts in the KG. Recent studies have shown that using the graph neighborhood of a node via graph neural networks (GNNs) provides more useful information compared to just using the query information. Conventional GNNs for KG link prediction follow the standard message-passing paradigm on the entire KG, which leads to superfluous computation, over-smoothing of node representations, and also limits their expressive power. On a large scale, it becomes computationally expensive to aggregate useful information from the entire KG for inference. To address the limitations of existing KG link prediction frameworks, we propose a novel retrieve-and-read framework, which first retrieves a relevant subgraph context for the query and then jointly reasons over the context and the query with a high-capacity reader. As part of our exemplar instantiation for the new framework, we propose a novel Transformer-based GNN as the reader, which incorporates graph-based attention structure and cross-attention between query and context for deep fusion. This simple yet effective design enables the model to focus on salient context information relevant to the query. Empirical results on two standard KG link prediction datasets demonstrate the competitive performance of the proposed method. Furthermore, our analysis yields valuable insights for designing improved retrievers within the framework.

Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) enhances model performance while maintaining computational efficiency, making it well-suited for large-scale applications. However, expert in exist MoE paradigm works as an individual, thereby lacking high-quality expert interactions. Moreover, they have not been effectively extended to attention block, which constrains further efficiency improvements. To tackle these issues, we propose Union-of-Experts (UoE), which decomposes transformer into an equitant group of experts, and then implement dynamic routing on input data and experts. Our approach advances MoE design with three key innovations: (1) We conducted equitant expert decomposition on both MLP blocks and attention blocks based on matrix partition in tensor parallelism. (2) We developed two routing paradigms: patch wise data selection and expert selection, to apply routing across different levels. (3) We design the architecture of UoE model, including Selective Multi-Head Attention (SMHA) and Union-of-MLP-Experts (UoME). (4) We develop parallel implementation of UoE's routing and computation operation, and optimize efficiency based on the hardware processing analysis. The experiments demonstrate that the model employed with UoE surpass Full Attention, state-of-art MoEs and efficient transformers in several tasks across image and natural language domains. The source codes are available at https://github.com/YujiaoYang-work/UoE.

Biomedical knowledge graphs (KGs) are widely used in the life sciences, yet many are derived from unstructured documents and therefore lack schema-level constrains, whereas graphs assembled from structured resources are difficult to harmonize into a unified representation. We present OptimusKG, a multimodal biomedical labeled property graph (LPG) built from structured and semi-structured resources to preserve factual, type-specific metadata across molecular, anatomical, clinical, and environmental domains. OptimusKG contains 190,531 nodes across 10 entity types, 21,813,816 edges across 26 relation types, and 67,249,863 property instances encoding 110,276,843 values across 150 distinct property keys, derived from 18 ontologies and controlled vocabularies. The graph enforces a top-level schema for nodes and edges and retains granular, type-specific properties, cross-references, and provenance across molecular, anatomical, clinical, and environmental domains. We assessed the validity of OptimusKG by evaluating whether graph relationships are supported by evidence from the scientific literature using a multimodal agent, PaperQA3. PaperQA3 identified supporting evidence for 70.0% of sampled edges, whereas 83.4% of sampled false edges received no supporting evidence. Edges without literature support were concentrated in associations derived from experimental and functional genomics resources, suggesting that OptimusKG captures biomedical knowledge that may precede synthesis in the scientific literature. OptimusKG is distributed as Apache Parquet files, providing a standardized resource for graph-based machine learning, knowledge-grounded retrieval with large language models, and biomedical discovery use cases such as hypothesis generation.

Crowdsourcing annotations has created a paradigm shift in the availability of labeled data for machine learning. Availability of large datasets has accelerated progress in common knowledge applications involving visual and language data. However, specialized applications that require expert labels lag in data availability. One such application is fault segmentation in subsurface imaging. Detecting, tracking, and analyzing faults has broad societal implications in predicting fluid flows, earthquakes, and storing excess atmospheric CO_2. However, delineating faults with current practices is a labor-intensive activity that requires precise analysis of subsurface imaging data by geophysicists. In this paper, we propose the CRACKS dataset to detect and segment faults in subsurface images by utilizing crowdsourced resources. We leverage Amazon Mechanical Turk to obtain fault delineations from sections of the Netherlands North Sea subsurface images from (i) 26 novices who have no exposure to subsurface data and were shown a video describing and labeling faults, (ii) 8 practitioners who have previously interacted and worked on subsurface data, (iii) one geophysicist to label 7636 faults in the region. Note that all novices, practitioners, and the expert segment faults on the same subsurface volume with disagreements between and among the novices and practitioners. Additionally, each fault annotation is equipped with the confidence level of the annotator. The paper provides benchmarks on detecting and segmenting the expert labels, given the novice and practitioner labels. Additional details along with the dataset links and codes are available at https://alregib.ece.gatech.edu/cracks-crowdsourcing-resources-for-analysis-and-categorization-of-key-subsurface-faults/{link}.

This paper introduces ExpertLongBench, an expert-level benchmark containing 11 tasks from 9 domains that reflect realistic expert workflows and applications. Beyond question answering, the application-driven tasks in ExpertLongBench demand long-form outputs that can exceed 5,000 tokens and strict adherence to domain-specific requirements. Notably, each task in ExpertLongBench includes a rubric, designed or validated by domain experts, to specify task requirements and guide output evaluation. Furthermore, we propose CLEAR, an evaluation framework that supports accurate evaluation of long-form model outputs in our benchmark. To achieve fine-grained, expert-aligned evaluation, CLEAR derives checklists from both model outputs and references by extracting information corresponding to items in the task-specific rubric. Checklist items for model outputs are then compared with corresponding items for reference outputs to assess their correctness, enabling grounded evaluation. We benchmark 11 large language models (LLMs) and analyze components in CLEAR, showing that (1) existing LLMs, with the top performer achieving only a 26.8% F1 score, require significant improvement for expert-level tasks; (2) models can generate content corresponding to the required aspects, though often not accurately; and (3) accurate checklist extraction and comparison in CLEAR can be achieved by open-weight models for more scalable and low-cost usage.

Large Language Models (LLMs) are key technologies driving intelligent systems to handle multiple tasks. To meet the demands of various tasks, an increasing number of LLMs-driven experts with diverse capabilities have been developed, accompanied by corresponding benchmarks to evaluate their performance. This paper proposes the Bench-CoE framework, which enables Collaboration of Experts (CoE) by effectively leveraging benchmark evaluations to achieve optimal performance across various tasks. Bench-CoE includes a set of expert models, a router for assigning tasks to corresponding experts, and a benchmark dataset for training the router. Moreover, we formulate Query-Level and Subject-Level approaches based on our framework, and analyze the merits and drawbacks of these two approaches. Finally, we conduct a series of experiments with vary data distributions on both language and multimodal tasks to validate that our proposed Bench-CoE outperforms any single model in terms of overall performance. We hope this method serves as a baseline for further research in this area. The code is available at https://github.com/ZhangXJ199/Bench-CoE.

Understanding causal narratives communicated in clinical notes can help make strides towards personalized healthcare. Extracted causal information from clinical notes can be combined with structured EHR data such as patients' demographics, diagnoses, and medications. This will enhance healthcare providers' ability to identify aspects of a patient's story communicated in the clinical notes and help make more informed decisions. In this work, we propose annotation guidelines, develop an annotated corpus and provide baseline scores to identify types and direction of causal relations between a pair of biomedical concepts in clinical notes; communicated implicitly or explicitly, identified either in a single sentence or across multiple sentences. We annotate a total of 2714 de-identified examples sampled from the 2018 n2c2 shared task dataset and train four different language model based architectures. Annotation based on our guidelines achieved a high inter-annotator agreement i.e. Fleiss' kappa (kappa) score of 0.72, and our model for identification of causal relations achieved a macro F1 score of 0.56 on the test data. The high inter-annotator agreement for clinical text shows the quality of our annotation guidelines while the provided baseline F1 score sets the direction for future research towards understanding narratives in clinical texts.

Dynamic knowledge graphs (DKGs) are popular structures to express different types of connections between objects over time. They can also serve as an efficient mathematical tool to represent information extracted from complex unstructured data sources, such as text or images. Within financial applications, DKGs could be used to detect trends for strategic thematic investing, based on information obtained from financial news articles. In this work, we explore the properties of large language models (LLMs) as dynamic knowledge graph generators, proposing a novel open-source fine-tuned LLM for this purpose, called the Integrated Contextual Knowledge Graph Generator (ICKG). We use ICKG to produce a novel open-source DKG from a corpus of financial news articles, called FinDKG, and we propose an attention-based GNN architecture for analysing it, called KGTransformer. We test the performance of the proposed model on benchmark datasets and FinDKG, demonstrating superior performance on link prediction tasks. Additionally, we evaluate the performance of the KGTransformer on FinDKG for thematic investing, showing it can outperform existing thematic ETFs.

The complementary potential of Large Language Models (LLM) assumes off-the-shelf LLMs have heterogeneous expertise in a wide range of domains and tasks so that an ensemble of LLMs can achieve consistently better performance. Existing ensemble methods for LLMs mainly focus on reward model ranking of outputs, leading to significant computation overhead. To combat this issue, we revisit the complementary potential of LLMs and further elaborate it by mining latent expertise with off-the-shelf reward models. We propose Zooter, a reward-guided routing method distilling rewards on training queries to train a routing function, which can precisely distribute each query to the LLM with expertise about it. We also integrate a tag-based label enhancement to mitigate noise from uncertainty when using rewards as silver supervision. Zooter shows computation efficiency in inference as it introduces only a minor computation overhead of a routing function compared with reward model ranking methods. We evaluate Zooter on a comprehensive benchmark collection with 26 subsets on different domains and tasks. Zooter outperforms the best single model on average and ranks first on 44% of tasks, even surpassing multiple reward model ranking methods.

Machine learning has emerged as a powerful tool for scientific discovery, enabling researchers to extract meaningful insights from complex datasets. For instance, it has facilitated the identification of disease-predictive genes from gene expression data, significantly advancing healthcare. However, the traditional process for analyzing such datasets demands substantial human effort and expertise for the data selection, processing, and analysis. To address this challenge, we introduce a novel framework, a Team of AI-made Scientists (TAIS), designed to streamline the scientific discovery pipeline. TAIS comprises simulated roles, including a project manager, data engineer, and domain expert, each represented by a Large Language Model (LLM). These roles collaborate to replicate the tasks typically performed by data scientists, with a specific focus on identifying disease-predictive genes. Furthermore, we have curated a benchmark dataset to assess TAIS's effectiveness in gene identification, demonstrating our system's potential to significantly enhance the efficiency and scope of scientific exploration. Our findings represent a solid step towards automating scientific discovery through large language models.

As Large Language Models (LLMs) gain wider adoption, ensuring their reliable handling of Personally Identifiable Information (PII) across diverse regulatory contexts has become essential. This work introduces a scalable multilingual data curation framework designed for high-quality PII annotation across 13 underrepresented locales, covering approximately 336 locale-specific PII types. Our phased, human-in-the-loop annotation methodology combines linguistic expertise with rigorous quality assurance, leading to substantial improvements in recall and false positive rates from pilot, training, and production phases. By leveraging inter-annotator agreement metrics and root-cause analysis, the framework systematically uncovers and resolves annotation inconsistencies, resulting in high-fidelity datasets suitable for supervised LLM fine-tuning. Beyond reporting empirical gains, we highlight common annotator challenges in multilingual PII labeling and demonstrate how iterative, analytics-driven pipelines can enhance both annotation quality and downstream model reliability.